UNIT 7: ACTS AND THE
LETTERS OF PAUL
Unit 7 of CST100 surveys Acts and the Letters of Paul. The main sections for Unit 7 are:
The recommending readings from the Bible for this unit of material are the following chapters: Acts 2, 8, 9-11, 15-18, 28; 1 Thessalonians; Philippians; Philemon.
Background and
Historical Context
The Acts of the Apostles is the second volume (or sequel) to the Gospel of Luke (see Luke 1:1-4; Acts 1:1-3). Acts records events from the three decades (roughly AD 30-62) after the death and resurrection of Jesus where the Gospel of Luke ends. Unfortunately, in our modern arrangement of New Testament books, the two volumes of Luke and Acts stand separated. After the four Gospels were collected, they were arranged in the order in which church tradition considered them to have been written: Matthew then Mark then Luke then John (for example, see Augustine, Harmony of the Gospels, 1.2 from around AD 400). Then Acts was included after these four accounts of the life of Jesus since it covered history from the next period of time. Unfortunately, this arrangement separated the Gospel of Luke from the book of Acts when they were intended to be read together (see especially Acts 1:1-3).
Church tradition states that Luke wrote both of these volumes. Even though Luke’s name never appears in either work, several "we-sections" are found in Acts where someone is included in the narrative unintroduced (Acts 16:10-17; 20:5-15; 21:1-18; 27:1-28:16). In these "we-sections," the text shifts subtly from a third-person perspective to a first-person voice. For example, on Paul's second missionary journey in Acts, "they went down to Troas" (16:8) shifts to "we immediately tried to cross over to Macedonia" (16:10). This unidentified individual represented in a first-person voice has traditionally been considered to be Luke traveling with Paul at the time (although some New Testament specialists doubt this assumption).
Just like the Gospel of Luke, Acts was addressed to an otherwise unknown individual named Theophilus (Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1). Most likely, Acts was written sometime in the decades after AD 70, after the Romans had destroyed Jerusalem and the Temple. The book of Acts is unique since it is the only historical narrative of the early Christian movement in the entire New Testament.
Together Luke and Acts are the single largest composition by one author in the entire New Testament -- even more material than all of Paul's letters combined. Why was so much time spent to write these 52 chapters of Luke-Acts? What is the purpose of Luke-Acts?
The purpose of Acts might be clarified by stating what Acts does not seem to be. Acts was not intended to be a comprehensive history of the early Church because Acts only describes the church moving in one direction, westward toward Rome, not southward to Egypt or eastward across the Jordan River (even though Christian spread into these areas early on). The title of the book is also misleading because Acts was not intended to be a history of the Twelve Apostles. The Apostles are listed by name in Acts 1:13, but other than that list, nine of them are never mentioned again in Acts. Peter is prominent in Acts (see Acts 1-5, 8-12, 15), but James (12:2) and John (3:1-11; 4:1-19; 8:14-25) are infrequently mentioned. Furthermore, Acts was not intended to be a biography of Paul. Paul is prominent in Acts chapters 9 and 13-28, but there is much about Paul known from his letters that is never mentioned in Acts and the book of Acts has much material that does not pertain directly to Paul.
If Acts was not intended to be a comprehensive history of the early Church nor a history of the Twelve Apostles nor a biography of Paul, what was the purpose of Acts? The purpose of Acts (and the Gospel of Luke as well) might be revealed in what we know about Theophilus, the stated recipient of these works. Even though the name Theophilus (Greek, "friend of God") might be a metaphor representing any devout Gentile reader, most likely this name was not a metaphor but the real name of the intended recipient of these two volumes.
Nothing is known of Theophilus outside of the books of Luke and Acts. In Luke 1:3, Theophilus is addressed as "most excellent" (Greek, kratiste). This term was often used as an honorable title for a governing official. For example, the Roman procurators Felix (Acts 23:26) and Festus (Acts 26:25) are both addressed with this same term. Therefore, it is very likely that Theophilus too was a Roman official. If Theophilus was a Roman official, this explains much of the content of the book of Acts which seems to focus on two major issues.
First, the purpose of Acts seems to be focused on the inclusion of the Gentiles. Acts repeatedly emphasizes that Gentiles do not have to become Jewish to become Christians. In other words, Gentiles do not have to become circumcised and accept Jewish ceremonial rituals to become authentic followers of Jesus. This issue would have been very important for Theophilus because he (like Luke according to Col. 4:11, 14) would not have been Jewish.
Acts, however, repeatedly describes the inclusion of the Gentiles into the early Church. In Acts 1:8, Jesus commissions the Apostles (who were all Jewish) to go to the Gentiles. In Acts 9, Paul is commissioned to go to the Gentiles at his conversion (see especially 9:15). In Acts 10, Peter is convinced to take the Gospel to the Gentiles even though this seemed backward to his Jewish upbringing (see especially 10:28, 34-35, 45). Next, the Church in Jerusalem learns from Peter to accept the Gentiles (see 11:1, 18). Then, Paul makes it is his agenda to take the Gospel directly to the Gentiles on his missionary journeys (see 13:46-48; 14:27). Paul's inclusion of the Gentiles causes so many problems that Church leaders convene in Jerusalem (ca. AD 49) to determine an official position on the inclusion of the Gentiles (see 15:1-5; 12-14, 19-20). After the Gentiles are affirmed at this "Jerusalem Conference," Paul again takes the Gospel to the Gentiles on his journeys (see 18:6; 21:19; 26:17-18; 26:20, 23). The book of Acts then concludes with Paul focusing his mission work entirely on the Gentiles instead of the Jews (28:28-31). This separation of Christianity from Judaism as described in Acts would have been very important to Theophilus, especially after the Jewish people in AD 66 had revolted against the Roman Empire (Theophilus' employer!).
Second, the purpose of Acts seems to be focused on Christianity in the eyes of the Romans. Acts repeatedly emphasizes that Christianity is compatible with Roman citizenship. In other words, one could be a good Roman citizen and an authentic follower of Jesus. The two were not incompatible. This issue would have been very important for Theophilus because many Romans considered the Christian movement to be subversive to the Roman government.
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Reasons why the Romans were suspicious of Christians:
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Acts, however, repeatedly shows that any problems that Christians encountered came from Jewish sources, not Roman. According to Luke-Acts, when Paul and other Christians are brought before Roman authorities they are repeatedly found to be innocent. This would be very important to Theophilus since he would not want to align himself with a movement that was subversive to the government for which he worked.
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Luke-Acts repeatedly shows Christians were innocent of charges brought against them:
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In summary, Acts tells much about the early Church in its first three decades (ca. AD 30-62). But Acts is not attempting to tell everything that happened to early Christians in those times. Instead, Acts is attempting to demonstrate to Theophilus that being a Christian does not mean that one becomes Jewish or becomes subversive to the Roman government.
Based on Acts 1:8, the book of Acts describes the Gospel spreading progressively through Jerusalem (Acts 1-6), Judea and Samaria (Acts 7-8), and to the ends of the earth (Acts 9-28). Acts 1:8 serves as the programmatic verse for understanding the progression in the book of Acts.
Acts can be studied on the progression of characters, geographical areas, or even summary statements.
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The Progression of Acts in Terms of |
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Reference: |
Major |
Extension |
Summary Statement: |
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Acts |
Peter |
in |
Acts 6:7, "The word of God continued to spread; the number of the
disciples increased greatly in |
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Acts |
Stephen |
in |
Acts |
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Acts |
Peter |
to the |
Acts |
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Acts |
Paul’s First Journey |
to |
Acts 16:5, "So the churches were strengthened in the faith and increased in numbers daily." |
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Acts |
Paul’s Second & Third Journeys |
to |
Acts |
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Acts |
Paul’s Imprisonment and Journey to Rome |
to |
Acts 28:30-31, "He lived there two whole years at his own expense
and welcomed all who came to him, proclaiming the |
Witnesses
in Jerusalem (1:1-6:7)
The Gospel of Luke ends with and the Book of Acts opens with Jesus commissioning his disciples in and near Jerusalem before he ascends to heaven (Lk. 24:44-53; Acts 1:1-14). Acts shifts the reader’s attention away from a sudden, impending return of Jesus (Acts 1:6-7) to the establishment of the church throughout the world (Acts 1:8-11). Acts repeatedly shows the message of Jesus as being intended for all peoples of the world.
The church begins in Jerusalem during the Jewish festival of Pentecost when Peter preaches to Jewish pilgrims from all over the world in the Temple (Acts 2:1-47). In the New Testament, the term "church" (Greek, ekklesia) refers to the new people of God (that is, believers in Jesus or followers of Jesus), not to a building or institution. In Acts 2:1-4, the Spirit comes down on the Apostles in a dramatic fashion. This episode is known as "Pentecost" since the first occurrence of such extraordinary effects of the Spirit are first mentioned here in Acts 2 during the Jewish festival of Pentecost. In Luke-Acts, the Holy Spirit plays a prominent role because the Spirit validates the direction in which the church goes. The Spirit is the sign of God's approval as the church embarks into new areas such as to the Samaritans (8:15-17) and to the Gentiles (10:44-47; 8:29, 39; 10:44-47; 11:12, 15; 13:2, 4). This opening episode (2:1-47) is often called the "Jewish Pentecost" since other "Pentecost" experiences occur later in Acts (see 8:15-17; 10:44-47; 19:1-7).
The believers soon encounter Jewish opposition to their rapid expansion (4:1-22; 5:12-40), but they continue with their preaching of Jesus (3:11-26; 4:23-31; 5:41-42). Acts describes the believers being unified, sharing generously with one another, and having all things in common (2:42-47; 4:32-5:11; 6:1-7). But to this point, the church is not attempting to fulfill the commission (Acts 1:8) to be witnesses outside of Jerusalem to Judea, Samaria, and the ends of the earth. The ensuing events with Stephen, Philip, and Saul of Tarsus, however, force the church to do so.
Witnesses
in Judea and Samaria (6:8-9:31)
A Hellenistic Jewish Christian named Stephen is accused of speaking against the Jerusalem Temple (6:8-7:1). He then defends himself by preaching a fiery sermon outlining God’s saving acts in Jewish history (7:2-46). He argues that God was never pleased with the Temple (7:47-50) and that the Jewish leaders have murdered God’s appointed one, Jesus (7:51-53). The Jewish council immediately beats Stephen to death with stones (7:54-8:1). At this point, Saul of Tarsus is first mentioned as he keeps the coats of those who were beating Stephen with stones (7:58). Because of the incident, Jewish opposition to the church intensifies and the believers are scattered from Jerusalem (8:1-4). The persecution of Christians is spearheaded by Saul of Tarsus (8:1, 3).
A Hellenistic Jewish Christian named Philip proclaims Jesus among the Samaritans and they are converted (8:5-25). The Apostles Peter and John go to Samaria to confirm what has taken place and the Samaritans receive the Holy Spirit (8:15-17) in a manner similar to the Pentecost experience in Acts 2. This is often called the "Samaritan Pentecost." The description of the Spirit coming on the Samaritan believers in the same kind of extraordinary manner is important because it validates the Samaritans as legitimate members of the early church even though many Jews (and Jewish Christians) of that time despised them.
Next, Philip is led by the Spirit to proclaim Jesus to an Ethiopian eunuch who was reading Isaiah 53 while traveling (8:26-35). The man becomes a believer and is baptized (8:36-40). Immediately afterward the Spirit snatches Philip away to the coast (8:39). The mention of the Spirit's activity (8:29, 39) with Philip and the Ethiopian eunuch is significant because it validates the inclusion of this first Gentile into the church and he did not have to become Jewish.
Meanwhile, the leading Jewish opponent to the church, Saul of Tarsus (later known as Paul), becomes a believer when he encounters the risen Jesus on the road to Damascus (9:1-22; 22:4-16; 26:9-18; Gal 1:13-24). He is commissioned to proclaim Jesus among the Gentiles (9:15) and immediately he begins preaching (9:23-31).
Witnesses
"to the Ends of the Earth" (9:32-28:31)
Peter is told to preach the Gospel in Caesarea to the Gentiles. This seemed backward to Peter's Jewish upbringing. Through a vision of a sheet with unclean animals, God reveals to Peter to make no distinction between the Jews and Gentiles as followers of Jesus (10:9-16, 28, 34-35, 45). Peter then proclaims the message of Jesus in Caesarea to a Roman centurion named Cornelius who is converted (10:1-8, 17-48), along with his entire household. These Gentiles receive the Spirit in a manner similar to Acts 2 (see 10:44-47). This episode is often called the "Gentile Pentecost." Like the other "Pentecost" experiences in Acts, the supernatural incursion of the Spirit represents God's approval of these Gentiles into the early church.
Peter then has to defend his openness towards the Gentiles to the Jewish believers in Jerusalem (11:1-17). His Jewish-Christian critics are silenced when he argues that the Gentiles received the Spirit just as the Jewish believers had in Acts 2. The church comes to the same conclusion regarding the Gentiles that Peter has (11:18).
To this point, Acts has described the inclusion of two Gentiles into the church (the Ethiopian eunuch and Cornelius). Neither of them became Jewish (that is, neither were circumcised and accepted Jewish rituals) to become followers of Jesus. Both of their conversions involve the Holy Spirit, which is the sign of God's approval of their inclusion in the church even though neither became Jewish. These two episodes are important because Acts shows that it was not so much Paul's agenda as it was God's agenda for the Gentiles to be included in the church.
Despite these two important conversion episodes in Acts, the missionary efforts of the believers at this point in Acts (11:19) is still limited to Jewish listeners. The church does not expand to the Gentiles (read: "the ends of the earth") until Paul makes it his agenda to do so in Acts 13.
Chapters 13-28 of Acts focus on the missionary efforts of Paul (earlier known as "Saul of Tarsus"), even though he was not the only Christian extending the Gospel into new regions. Paul is significant to the purpose of Acts because he is the major proponent for the inclusion of the Gentiles in the church. Luke arranges his descriptions of Paul's travels into three missionary journeys and a voyage to Rome as a prisoner. This arrangement does not necessarily imply a strict chronological sequence to Paul’s travels since Paul’s letters occasionally indicate otherwise.
On Paul’s "First Missionary Journey" (13:1-14:28), Paul, Barnabas, and John Mark travel to Cyprus and South Galatia starting churches among the Gentiles despite Jewish opposition. Immediately afterward, the Jewish believers in Jerusalem convene to determine the official position of the church regarding the inclusion of Gentiles (15:1-5). At this "Jerusalem Conference," James (the brother of Jesus) and other leaders declare that the Gentiles do not have to become Jewish, but they do need to keep certain ethical and moral standards (Acts 15:1-35; Gal. 2:1-10).
On Paul’s "Second Missionary Journey" (15:36-18:22), Paul and Silas travel through Macedonia, Achaia, and Asia Minor. Paul makes key stops at the cities of Troas (16:8-11), Philippi (16:12-40), Thessalonica (17:1-10), Athens (17:15-18:1), and Corinth (18:1-18). The majority of Paul’s "Third Missionary Journey" (18:23-21:17) takes place in Ephesus where he stays for over two years.
As Paul returns to Judea, twice he is warned of trouble ahead in Jerusalem (21:3-6, 8-16). In Jerusalem, Paul is mobbed for allegedly bringing a Gentile into the Temple (21:15-36). After Paul speaks to the crowds in Aramaic (21:37-22:21), he is arrested in Jerusalem by the Romans (22:22-23:10) and then is transferred to Caesarea due to a plot on his life (23:11-35). In Caesarea, Paul is imprisoned for two years and appears before the procurators Felix (24:1-27) and Festus (25:1-26:30), Paul appeals to Caesar (Nero of all people!) in an effort to be released.
Due to his appeal, Paul is taken as a prisoner in a traumatic voyage to Rome through treacherous seas (27:1-28:15). Along the way, he is shipwrecked on the island of Malta (27:39-28:10). Eventually, Paul arrives in Rome where he remained under house arrest for two years (28:14-31). The book of Acts then ends with Paul proclaiming that his missionary efforts will be solely for the Gentiles, not the Jews (28:23-28). The book of Acts ends without mentioning the outcome of Paul’s trial or how Paul eventually dies (28:30-31).
Arguably no one impacted the shape of early Christianity more than the Apostle Paul. The primary historical sources (and therefore the starting point) for reconstructing the details of Paul’s life are his letters.
According to Paul’s letters, Paul was a Jew of the tribe of Benjamin and had been trained as a Pharisee (Phil. 3:5). Only Acts describes Paul as being a Hellenistic Jew originally named Saul from Tarsus (Acts 9:11; 21:39) who was trained by the famous rabbi Gamaliel (Acts 5:34; 22:3). In Tarsus, Paul would have been exposed to the Greco-Roman philosophies and religions of his day. Acts alone also describes Paul as a Roman citizen. Of course, this would be significant for Theophilus to know.
Paul’s most famous pre-Christian activity was persecuting the church, which is attested widely in his letters and Acts (Gal. 1:13-14, 23; Phil. 3:6; Acts 8:3). In his letters, Paul never describes his "conversion" experience in detail (1 Cor. 15:8-10; Gal. 1:15-17; Phil. 3:4-9) as Acts does (9:1-22; 22:4-16; 26:9-18). Paul does speak of a decisive turning point in his understanding of Jesus and God’s purpose for his life (Gal. 1:15-16). Even though Paul was not one of "the Twelve" (Acts 1:13; 1 Cor. 15:5-9), he did consider himself to be the "Apostle to the Gentiles" (Rom. 1:1, 5; 11:13; 1 Cor. 9:1-3; 15:8-10; Gal. 1:1-2:10).
In his letters, Paul never delineates his evangelistic travels as three distinct "missionary journeys" as Acts does. Paul often mentions his recent travels and his immediate itinerary but only as much as necessary for the occasion of the letter. From these sporadic details, a sketch of Paul’s travels can be drawn.
According to his letters, Paul spent three years in Arabia after his "conversion" (Gal. 1:15-17). Afterward he went up to Jerusalem for the first time to meet privately with Peter ("Cephas") and James (Gal. 1:18-24). After fourteen years of traveling, Paul, Barnabas, and Titus made a second trip to Jerusalem to persuade Peter, James, and others to be more open towards Gentiles (Gal. 2:1-10). The tension between Paul and the believers in Jerusalem is clear in Paul’s stiff rebuke to Peter (Gal. 2:11-14). Two distinct factions in the church were emerging. First, a Gentile-Christian faction was led by Paul, Barnabas, and others associated with Paul. Second, a Jewish-Christian faction was led by James (the brother of Jesus), Peter (also known as "Cephas"), and others in and around Jerusalem. According to his letters, Paul made an impressive goodwill gesture towards the unity of these two factions by his "collection for the saints in Jerusalem" (1 Cor. 16:1-4; 2 Cor. 8:1-9:15; Rom. 15:25-29; Gal. 2:10). This was a sizeable love-offering that he collected among his Gentile churches to help impoverished Jewish Christians in Jerusalem that were suffering from the aftereffects of a famine.
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Paul’s Visits to Jerusalem |
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Five Visits to Jerusalem
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Three Visits to Jerusalem
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Besides the trips to Jerusalem, Paul frequently mentions his missionary efforts in provinces such as Macedonia (the cities of Thessalonica and Philippi), Achaia (Corinth), Asia (Ephesus), and Galatia. Paul even hoped to go to Rome and ultimately to Spain (Rom. 15:14-29), but none of his letters mentions the outcome of those plans. Paul’s death is never mentioned in the New Testament although church tradition indicates that he was martyred under Nero sometime after the fire in Rome (ca. AD 64-68).
The New Testament contains thirteen letters bearing Paul’s name. Nine of these are addressed to churches while four are addressed to individuals. Hebrews is anonymous and not from Paul, even though Paul is often assumed to be author of the letter. The letters of Paul are arranged in the New Testament according to their length (that is, longest to shortest for his church letters and then longest to shortest for letters to individuals), not by chronology (that is, the order in which they were written). How and when these various letters were brought together into one collection as found in the New Testament is not completely known. Most likely the letters were collected as they became known to churches other than the original recipients and then copies were made to circulate to other churches.
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The Pauline Epistles |
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Nine letters to churches:
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Four letters to individuals:
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Paul’s letters are examples of Greco-Roman letters of his time. Greco-Roman letters typically followed a standard format with a consistent sequence of particular elements. This ancient format can be seen in the letters of Paul and some of the other letters of the New Testament. Paul generally followed the standard format of ancient letter writing, but he often altered some elements to have a distinctly Christian flavor. His letters also tended to be quite a bit longer than typical Greco-Roman letters since he often used them as the vicarious substitutes for his personal presence in the churches he had started.
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Greco-Roman Letters |
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Section |
Example of a Greco-Roman Letter |
Example of a Letter of Paul |
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Salutation |
Sender's name |
Irenaeus |
Paul, called to be an apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God, and our brother Sosthenes, (1 Cor. 1:1) |
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Recipient's name |
to Apollinarius his dearest brother |
To the church of God that is in Corinth, to those who are sanctified in Christ Jesus, called to be saints, together with all those who in every place call on the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, both their Lord and ours: (1 Cor. 1:2) |
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Greeting |
many greetings. |
Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ. |
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Body of the Letter |
Thanksgiving |
I pray continually for your health, and I myself am well. |
I give thanks to my God always for you because of the grace of God that
has been given you in Christ Jesus, . . . |
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Body |
I wish you to know that I reached land on the sixth of the month Epeiph and we unloaded our cargo on the eighteenth of the same month. I went up to Rome on the twenty-fifth of the same month and the place welcomed us as the god willed, and we are daily expecting our discharge, it so being that up till today nobody in the corn fleet has been released. |
Now I appeal to you, brothers and sisters, by the name of our Lord
Jesus Christ, that all of you be in agreement and that there be no divisions
among you, but that you be united in the same mind and the same purpose. . .
. |
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Closing Commands |
(Absent in this particular letter but usually present in Greco-Roman letters) |
Keep alert, stand firm in your faith, be courageous, be strong. Let all that you do be done in love. (1 Cor. 16:13-14) |
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Conclusion |
Peace Wish |
(Absent in this particular letter) |
Absent in 1 Corinthians. |
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Greetings |
Many salutations to your wife and to Serenus and to all who love you, each by name. |
The churches of Asia send greetings. Aquila and Prisca, together with the church in their house, greet you warmly in the Lord. All the brothers and sisters send greetings. (1 Cor. 16:19-20a) |
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Kiss |
(Absent in this particular letter) |
Greet one another with a holy kiss. (1 Cor. 16:20b) |
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Personal remark from the sender |
(Absent in this particular letter) |
I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand. (1 Cor. 16:21) |
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Close |
Goodbye. |
The grace of the Lord Jesus be with you. (1 Cor. 16:23) |
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New Testament specialists describe the letters of Paul as "occasional" documents since they address specific issues (or "occasions") of the intended recipients of the letters. Paul's letters are letters and must be interpreted as such. For example, 1 Thessalonians was written to believers in the city of Thessalonica sometime in the decade of the AD 50s. Philippians was written to believers in the city of Philippi sometime in the AD 50s or early 60s. When people today read Paul's letters, we must remember that we are reading someone else's mail. The content and wording of the letters was intended for specific readers in the first century Mediterranean world. Readers today must interpret Paul's letters in light of that historical context.
As "occasional" documents, the letters Paul are sometimes difficult to interpret since modern readers only have the benefit of hearing half of the conversation. For example, in 1 Corinthians 7:1 Paul states that he is responding to a letter that the Corinthians had written to him. We don't have that letter today, but Paul's responses in 1 Corinthians 7-16 must be understood in light of the issues that must have been raised in that letter to him. Sometimes the exact issue that Paul was addressing in a letter is difficult to reconstruct. Second Thessalonians 2:1-12 is notoriously difficult to interpret because Paul mentions many terms and concepts that he doesn't explain in this letter (or anywhere else). In the midst of this passage, Paul tells the original readers, "Don't you remember that I told you these things when I was with you?" Paul is indicating that he cut his explanations short in that passage because he assumed that the original readers remembered his words about these matters.
The letters of 1 Thessalonians, 1-2 Corinthians, Galatians, Romans, Philippians, and Philemon are often called the "genuine" letters of Paul because rarely does anyone doubt that Paul wrote those letters. The letters of 2 Thessalonians, Colossians, Ephesians, 1-2 Timothy, and Titus are often called the "disputed" letters of Paul (or "deutero-Pauline" letters) because New Testament specialists debate whether Paul wrote these letters or whether someone wrote these several decades later in Paul’s name. The content, language, and style of these disputed letters often differ from that found in the so-called genuine letters of Paul. Exactly how the letters of Paul were composed is not exactly clear. Paul himself indicates that he sometimes used a scribe to write his letters (see Rom. 16:22) and then signed a greeting in his own handwriting (see 1 Cor. 16:21; Gal. 6:11).
By the second century, some Christian groups composed and circulated letters and other works in the names of prominent church leaders to spread their particular beliefs and practices (for example, 3 Corinthians, the letter of Peter to Philip, the Acts of Peter, the Acts of Paul, the Revelation of Peter, etc.). Most of these pseudonymous works were rejected as heretical documents by the mainstream church. Therefore, some New Testament specialists think that some "orthodox" Christians composed letters in the name of Paul and others to fight against these heresies by taking Paul’s teaching to the next generation. On the other hand, other scholars feel that the differences in content, style, and vocabulary in these so-called "disputed letters" are due to the different occasions of the letters, not because Paul didn't write them.
Paul’s letter to the Romans is to a church that he had neither started nor visited. In this letter, he is not attacking any opponents or critics. Instead, to these Christians in Rome whom he has not met, Paul is explaining who he is, the message that he preaches, and why he wants to come visit them. Since Paul had many opponents that distorted what he said and since he often had been misunderstood, Paul explains his stance on many issues in this letter so the Roman Christians would know his position firsthand. Paul explains his intentions to come to Rome to launch his missionary efforts westward toward Spain (Rom. 15:22-33). Therefore, Romans is a genuine letter dealing with theological issues, not a comprehensive exercise in systematic theology. Paul’s letter to the Romans does contain his most thorough treatment of the doctrine of salvation in the New Testament.
Romans 1-8 basically explains the "Gospel According to Paul." In Romans 1:17-3:20, Paul first addresses the problem of human sinfulness. He argues that all the Gentiles are sinful (1:18-32) but then adds that all the Jews are sinful as well even though they have the Law (2:1-29). Paul concludes this section by stating that "all have sinned and come short of the glory of God" (3:1-20, especially v. 23).
In Romans 3:21-8:39, Paul next argues that the solution to this problem is faith in Christ, not attempting to keep the Law. Paul states that God justifies a person on the basis of faith. Just as Abraham had been justified by believing God in a time before the Law had existed (4:1-25), so now Paul states that believers are still justified the same way -- by faith in Christ. In chapter 5, Paul describes the death of Christ as ultimately demonstrating God’s love (5:1-11) and rectifying the damage done by human sinfulness since Adam (5:12-21). Paul then addresses a number of Jewish objections to his understanding of sin and the Law (6:1-14, 15-23; 7:7-23). Chapter 8 indicates that Paul saw the basis of Christian behavior to be the Spirit dwelling in a believer, rather than keeping the ceremonial Jewish regulations "according to the flesh."
In Rom. 9:1-11:36, Paul addresses his understanding of God’s dealings with Jews and Gentiles in the scope of history. Essentially, Paul is responding to the issue that the Gentiles as believers were now being including as part of the people of God while the Jews themselves were not since they did not recognize Jesus to be their messiah. Paul concludes the letter by calling for proper Christian behavior based on the grace that God has shown (12:1-15:13).
The letters known as 1 and 2 Corinthians are addressed to the church at Corinth, the capital city of the Roman province of Achaia. Even though Acts only describes Paul founding the church in Corinth (Acts 18:1-18) and briefly returning there (20:2b-3), the letters of 1 and 2 Corinthians indicate a complex history and series of correspondence between Paul and this church. According to his letters, Paul sent at least four letters to Corinth and made at least three trips there as well in attempts to resolve problems in this church.
New Testament specialists often call these four (or five?) letters Corinthians A, B, C, and D to avoid confusion. Paul states that he had written a previous letter to Corinth (see 1 Cor. 5:9), which would be designated "Corinthians A." Then what we call "First Corinthians" would be designated "Corinthians B" since it came afterward. According to 2 Corinthians 2:3-4, Paul wrote a painful or severe letter ("Corinthians C") before writing the letter that is commonly called "Second Corinthians" (Corinthians D). New Testament specialists then debate whether 2 Corinthians was originally one or more letters.
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The Corinthian Correspondence |
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Contact |
Content |
Reference and Description |
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Paul founds the church at Corinth, ca. AD 49-51 |
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According to Acts 18:1-18, Paul stays in Corinth for 18 months, starts the church, and meets Priscilla and Aquila. |
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Paul writes |
no longer extant? |
1 Cor. 5:9, "I wrote to you in my letter not to associate with sexually immoral persons." |
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Apollos visits Corinth |
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Acts 19:1, "While Apollos was in Corinth,
Paul . . . came to Ephesus" |
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Paul hears reports from Chloe’s people and others |
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1 Cor. 1:11, "For it has been reported to me by Chloe’s people that there are quarrels among you . . . ." (cf.1 Cor. 16:17) |
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The Corinthians write a letter to Paul |
no longer extant, but Paul quotes from it in 1 Cor. 6:12, 13; 7:1; 10:23 |
1 Cor. 7:1, "Now concerning the matters about which you wrote . . ." |
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Paul sends Timothy |
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1 Cor. 4:17, "For this reason I sent you Timothy . . . to remind
you of my ways in Christ Jesus . . ." (cf. 1 Cor. 16:10) |
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Paul writes |
1 Corinthians |
This is Paul’s response both to the reports he has heard and to the letter from the Corinthians to him. |
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Paul visits Corinth a second time |
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1 Cor. 16:5-7, "I will visit you after passing through Macedonia .
. and perhaps I will stay with you or even spend the winter . . . . for I
hope to spend some time with you. . . ." |
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Paul writes |
no longer extant? |
2 Cor. 2:3-4, "And I wrote as I did, so that when I came, I might not suffer pain from those who should have made me rejoice . . . . For I wrote you out of much distress and anguish of heart and with many tears, not to cause you pain, but to let you know the abundant love that I have for you." (cf. 2 Cor. 2:9) |
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Titus brings good news from Corinth |
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2 Cor. 7:5-7, ". . . when we came into Macedonia, our bodies had no rest, . . . but God . . . consoled us by the arrival of Titus, . . . as he told us of your longing, your mourning, your zeal for me, so that I rejoiced still more." |
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Paul writes |
2 Corinthians |
This is an encouraging letter after receiving good news from Titus about the situation in Corinth. |
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Paul possibly writes |
2 Corinthians 10-13? |
This would be a harsh, defensive letter after receiving further news about the situation in Corinth. |
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Paul visits Corinth a third time |
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2 Cor. 12:14, "Here I am, ready to come to you this third time" |
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Clement of Rome writes a letter to Corinth, |
1 Clement |
1 Clem. 1:1, "The church of God which sojourns in Rome to the church of God which sojourns in Corinth . . ." |
The letter commonly known as 1 Corinthians ("Corinthians B") is Paul’s response to rumors that he has heard about the Corinthians believers (1 Cor. 1:10-6:20) and a letter that the Corinthians had written to Paul (1 Cor. 7:1-16:4). First Corinthians responds to numerous problems that needed correcting in the church at Corinth.
Paul’s response to reports about the Corinthians basically divides into two major sections. First, Paul addresses the problems of factions in the church (1 Cor. 1:10-4:21). "Chloe’s people" told Paul that the Corinthians were contentiously claiming allegiance to various church leaders such as Paul, Apollos, Cephas (Peter), and "Christ" (1:10-17). Paul denounces their misplaced loyalty and their egocentric "wisdom." Second, Paul addresses some moral issues among the Corinthian believers such as a church member sleeping with his stepmother (5:1-13), church members suing each other in the public courts (6:1-8), and some church members being sexually immoral (6:9-20).
Chapters 7-16 contain Paul’s response to the letter that the Corinthians had written to him. Topics from their letter seem to be enumerated by the recurring expression "now concerning" (7:1, 25; 8:1; 12:1; 15:1?; 16:1, 12). Paul first responds to their questions about marriage and singleness (7:1-40). Paul next answers whether or not the Corinthian believers were permitted to eat food that had been sacrificed to idols in pagan temples (8:1-11:1). Paul demonstrates a remarkable amount of liberty on this issue (contra, Acts 15:20, 29; 21:24; Rev. 2:14, 20) which was quite divisive for Jewish- and Gentile-Christians. After addressing abuses of the roles of men and women in public worship (11:2-16) and the Lord’s supper (11:17-34), Paul spends a sizeable amount of space addressing spiritual gifts (12:1-31) in general, and the gift of tongues (that is, ecstatic utterance) in specific (14:1-40). In the midst of this discussion, Paul exalts love as the only proper way to use any of the gifts of the spirit (13:1-13). Paul addresses the only purely theological issue in the letter when he defends and explains his expectation of a future resurrection of the righteous (15:1-58). Paul wraps up the letter with some concluding remarks about his collection for the famine-stricken believers in Jerusalem (16:1-4) and the immediate itinerary of himself (16:5-9), Timothy (16:10-11), and Apollos (16:12).
Many New Testament specialists feel that the letter commonly known as 2 Corinthians ("Corinthians D") is a compilation of several letters that originally were sent separately from Paul to Corinth. Even though all the known manuscripts of 2 Corinthians contain all thirteen chapters as one letter, the letter has several significant shifts in content and mood.
The present form of the letter has three distinct sections. First, in chapters 1-7, Paul rejoices at the good news brought by Titus regarding the situation in Corinth. Evidently, many of the problems in Corinth had been resolved and Paul has been reconciled back into good standing with the Corinthians. Second, in chapters 8-9, Paul provides detailed instructions regarding the collection for the saints in Jerusalem. This was a voluntary collection of money that Paul took up among the predominantly Gentile churches to assist the famine-stricken Jewish-Christians that were suffering in Jerusalem. The ingenuity of this compassionate effort was the harmony and unity that the offering brought to these two emerging factions of the church. Finally, in chapters 10-13, Paul makes a heated, sarcastic defense of his apostleship.
Galatians is a defensive letter in which Paul sternly rebukes the churches that he began in the province of Galatia. The letter is unclear whether Paul is addressing the churches he started in southern Galatia (Acts 13:13-14:28) or northern Galatia (Acts 16:6; 18:23). The occasion that prompted Paul to write this angry letter is what happened to these churches after Paul had left. Evidently, after these Gentiles in Galatia were converted due to Paul’s preaching, Judaizers came in and insisted that these Gentile Christians must be circumcised and become Jewish to truly be disciples. "Judaizers" (see Phil 3:2-3; Acts 15:1) were Jewish-Christians who insisted that all followers of Jesus must be circumcised. Paul is appalled that the Galatian believers would be so quickly deceived into following a distorted message. Such insistence on Jewish rituals contradicted Paul’s preaching of the gospel and undermined his authority as an apostle. The letter to the Galatians basically divides into three major sections that address these issues.
First in the opening two chapters, Paul has to defend his authority with a lengthy autobiographical description of his right to be considered an apostle (Gal. 1:1-2:21). He argues that his authority to be an apostle rests on his personal experience with Jesus (1:13-17) and his independence from the Jewish Christians in Jerusalem such as Peter and James (1:18-2:14). Paul had to reestablish his credentials with the Galatian believes so that they would reconsider what he had preached to them.
Second, Paul has to defend his message with a complex argument that Gentiles do not have to become Jewish in order to become Christians (3:1-4:31). Paul argues based on the Spirit (3:1-5), the example of Abraham (3:6-14), inheritance laws (3:15-18), Christian creeds (3:26-4:11), Paul’s relationship with the Galatians (4:12-20), and an allegory about Sarah and Hagar (4:21-31) that salvation is a matter of faith in Christ, not keeping the Jewish ceremonial rituals. For Paul, a person became part of the people of God by believing in Jesus, not by becoming Jewish.
Third, Paul has to clarify the nature of Christian freedom (5:1-6:10). Evidently, Paul's detractors had accused Paul of preaching immorality and anarchy since he claimed that believers were "free from the Law" (that is, the Torah). Paul does argue that believers are free from the Law (especially, ceremonial aspects such as circumcision, festivals, Sabbath observance, and kosher food), but believers are expected to be moral and ethical since God's spirit now resides within them. The basis for believers to act in a godly manner is not the Law (or "Torah"), but the Spirit (5:16-26).
The letter to the Ephesians might have been a circular letter intended to be read in more churches than just Ephesus. Several early manuscripts omit the phrase "in Ephesus" in the opening verse (1:1). Unlike Paul's other letters, no specific issues or individuals are ever addressed in the letter. Furthermore, much of the content in Ephesians is similar to that found in Colossians.
The dominant theme of Ephesians is the unity of the church in Christ. The Gentile readers are told that they were chosen in Christ before the foundation of the world (1:3-23). The church is to be unified by the inclusion of both Jews and Gentiles "in Christ" (2:1-22). The church is described as having a unified structure (2:20-22) with a unified doctrine (4:4-6).
While the first half of Ephesians is mostly doctrinal (1:3-3:21), the second half of the letter addresses many practical, ethical issues (4:1-6:23). After instructing the readers to be "filled with the spirit" (5:18) which includes having a spirit of mutual submission among fellow believers (5:21), the letter delineates a series of household codes (5:22-6:9; cf. Col. 3:18-4:1; 1 Pet. 3:1-7). These household describe the relationship between husbands and wives (5:22-33), parents and children (6:1-4), and masters and slaves (6:5-9).
Paul’s letter to the church in Philippi (Acts 16:11-40) was written from prison possibly in Rome, Ephesus, Caesarea, or elsewhere. First, Paul joyfully informs the readers that his present situation has caused the message of the gospel to advance even though he was facing possible martyrdom (1:12-30). Second, Paul reminds the Philippian believers to follow the example of Christ (2:5-11), Paul himself (2:12-18), Timothy (2:19-24), and Epaphroditus (2:25-29) by thinking less of themselves and more of others (2:1-4). Many New Testament specialists think that Paul is quoting an early Christian hymn when he refers to Jesus’ humbling himself and then being exalted (2:6-11). Third, Paul warns the Philippian believers not to be led astray by Judaizers that insist that Gentile believers must accept Jewish rituals such as circumcision (3:1b-4:1). Finally, Paul concludes the letter by thanking the church for sending him generous financial support while he was imprisoned (4:10-20).
Colossians is a letter addressed to the church in the tiny city of Colossae, which was destroyed by an earthquake in the early AD 60s and was never rebuilt. Like the church in Rome, Paul had neither founded nor visited the church in Colossae (Col. 2:1), which probably had been started by one of his co-workers named Epaphras (Col. 1:7; 4:12).
The major purpose of the letter to the Colossians was to attack a philosophical heresy often dubbed the "Colossian Heresy" (Col. 2:8-3:4). The exact source of the heresy is unclear, but it seems to be a distorted combination of Jewish rituals and Gnostic thought. The letter attacks the heresy by strongly asserting Christ as Lord throughout the whole cosmos (1:15-17) and the church (1:18-20).
The letter known as 1 Thessalonians is addressed to the church at Thessalonica, the capital city of Macedonia (Acts 17:1-15). This letter is most likely Paul’s earliest letter, as well as the earliest document in the entire New Testament (ca. AD 51).
In 1 Thessalonians, Paul encourages the believers in Thessalonica to remain faithful to Jesus as their Lord despite a significant amount of persecution they were facing (1 Thess. 1:6; 2:14; 3:1-5). Paul has to defend his concern for the Thessalonians (1 Thess. 2:1-12) and explain why he was absent (1 Thess. 2:17-20) when they were going through such rough times. Because the Thessalonian believers were from a predominantly Gentile background (1 Thess. 1:9), Paul had to exhort them to be sexual pure (1 Thess. 4:1-8).
By far, the biggest issue in the letter regards the "day of the Lord" (1 Thess. 1:10; 2:19; 3:13; 4:13-5:11). Paul seems to correct two misunderstandings about the "day of the Lord" in the mind of the Thessalonian believers. First, the believers who had died before the coming of the Lord Jesus would not suffer any disadvantage to those believers who were still living (1 Thess. 4:13-18). Second, the believers should live in a state of preparedness for the day of the Lord because it could come at any time like "a thief in the night" (1 Thess. 5:1-11).
Second Thessalonians is a much more difficult letter to understand than 1 Thessalonians. The letter is basically an attempt to correct the misunderstanding that the day of the Lord had already come (2 Thess. 2:1-12). In the process of correcting this error, the readers are told (2:3) that a rebellion (Greek, apostasia) must come first and a "man of lawlessness" (2:3-4) who was being restrained by some individual or force (2:6-7) would be revealed and then destroyed in the day of the Lord (2:8-12). New Testament specialists greatly differ on their explanations for these terms or even why the letter specifies these preliminary occurrences when 1 Thessalonians describes the day of the Lord as being imminent like a "thief in the night."
The
Pastoral Letters: 1-2 Timothy and Titus
The letters to Timothy and Titus are typically called the "Pastoral Epistles" because Timothy and Titus were young church leaders learning from their mentor, Paul. Of all the letters of Paul, the authorship of these three letters is the most contested.
The first letter to Timothy and the letter to Titus have many similar themes. The letters warn against the danger of false teachers (1 Tim. 1:19-20; 4:1-16; 6:3-5) and affirm orthodox doctrine through creedal statements (1 Tim. 1:15; 2:5-6; 3:1, 16-17; 4:9-10; 2 Tim. 2:11-13; Titus 3:7-8a). The letters of Titus and 1 Timothy most notably emphasize proper behavior and belief for various church members such as bishops (Titus 1:7-9; 1 Tim. 3:1-7), deacons (1 Tim. 3:8-13), elders (Titus 1:5; 1 Tim. 4:14; 5:17-19), women (Titus 2:3-5; 1 Tim. 2:9-15; 3:11), widows (1 Tim. 5:31-6), and teachers (1 Tim.1:3-7; 6:3-20). Second Timothy is the most personal of the Pauline Epistles. The letter reflects the farewell comments from a veteran missionary to a younger colleague.
None of Paul’s letters in the New Testament is more occasional than his letter to Philemon. Paul wrote this brief letter concerning a fugitive slave named Onesimus. Evidently, Onesimus had run away from a Christian slave-owner named Philemon who might have lived in Colossae (Col. 4:9). Sometime after Onesimus had left, he came in contact with Paul and became a Christian (Phm.10). In accordance with Roman law, Paul is sending Onesimus back to Philemon with this letter in hand. Paul asks that Philemon would welcome him back (Phm. 17), allow Paul to repay any of Onesimus’s debts (Phm. 18-19), and then send Onesimus back to Paul since he was imprisoned (Phm. 13-14). Paul sees enormous theological significance in the unfolding of these events. Paul has complete confidence that Philemon would respond positively to Paul's requests with compassion and understanding (Phm. 14, 21).
Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible [NRSV], copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.
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