UNIT 6: THE GOSPELS OF MATTHEW, LUKE, AND JOHN

Unit 6 of CST100 surveys the Gospels of Matthew, Luke, and John. The main sections for Unit 6 are:

The recommending readings from the Bible for this unit of material are the following chapters: Matthew 1-7; Luke 1-2, 6, 10, 15; John 1, 6, 11, 13.

The Gospel According to Matthew

Background and Historical Context

The earliest known statement in church tradition about the origins of the Gospel of Matthew is by Papias, bishop of Hierapolis, around AD 135 (as quoted in Eusebius's Church History 3.39.16). Papias states that the Apostle Matthew wrote the oracles (sayings?) of Jesus in the Hebrew language (possibly meaning Aramaic). Our Gospel of Matthew, however, gives no evidence of having been written in Hebrew or Aramaic and then being translated into Greek. Instead, internal evidence from the text itself indicates that the anonymous author compiled this Gospel in Greek based on sources such as Mark. Many New Testament specialists think that Papias (and the rest of the early Church tradition) is not describing the origins of what we call the Gospel of Matthew but a collection of Jesus' sayings (oracles?), possibly the hypothesized Q (especially since the Q-material mostly occurs in five noticeable chunks in the Gospel of Matthew).

Regardless of Papias's statement, the majority of New Testament specialists believe that the Gospel of Matthew was based on Mark and a collection of Jesus’ sayings known as Q. The Gospel of Matthew basically follows the description of Jesus as arranged in the Gospel of Mark. Like Mark, Matthew describes most of Jesus' public ministry taking place in and around Galilee before he makes a fateful journey to Jerusalem for Passover where he is rejected and dies.

Matthew includes additional material about Jesus and his teachings beyond Mark. Much of this additional material is the so-called Q material in which Jesus' teachings are parallel to those found in Luke (but not Mark). At the beginning and end of the Gospel of Matthew are additional episodes about Jesus' birth (1:1-2:23) and resurrection (28:8-20). Even though Matthew is mentioned only twice by name in this Gospel (9:9; 10:3), the Gospel of Matthew includes several additional episodes about Peter (14:28-31; 16:17-19; 17:24-27; 18:21-22). Most likely, the Gospel of Matthew was written for Christian Jews in their struggles against non-Christian Jews in the synagogues in the AD 70s or 80s.

Internal Evidence for the Origination of the Gospel of Matthew

  • Dependence upon the Gospel of Mark for content, wording, and arrangement of episodes (including the call of Matthew to be a disciple in Mt. 9:9-13).
  • Much similarity between the teaching material of Jesus in Matthew to that found in Luke but not found in Mark. (This is the hypothesized Q material.)
  • Increased antagonism against the Jews (e.g., Mt. 23:1-39)
  • Preference for the term "kingdom of heaven" (32x) over "kingdom of God" (4x)
  • Numerous citations of the Old Testament as being fulfilled (see Mt 1:22-23; 2:5-6, 15, 17-18, 23; 3:3; 4:13-16; 11:10; 12:17-21; 13:14-15, 35; 15:7-8; 21:4-7, 13, 16, 42; 22:43-44; 26:31; 27:9-10)
  • Temporal references from a later time ("to this very day" in 27:8; 28:15)
  • References to the "church" (16:18; 18:17)

 

Major Passages Unique to the Gospel of Matthew:

  • The entire infancy narrative (Mt. 1:1-2:23), including:
    • The annunciation to Joseph and the birth of Jesus (Mt. 1:18-25)
    • The visit of the magi (Mt. 2:1-12)
    • The flight to Egypt (Mt. 2:13-23)
  • Comfort for the weary (Mt. 11:28-30)
  • Additional parables (beyond Mark):
    • Parable of the wheat and the weeds (Mt. 13:24-30, 36-43)
    • Parable of the hidden treasure (Mt. 13:44)
    • Parable of the pearl of great price (Mt. 13:45-46)
    • Parable of the net (Mt. 13:47-50)
    • Parable of the new and old (Mt. 13:51-52)
    • Parable of the unmerciful servant (Mt. 18:23-35)
    • Parable of the workers in the vineyard (Mt. 20:1-16)
    • Parable of the two sons (Mt. 21:28-32)
    • Parable of the ten bridesmaids (Mt. 25:1-13)
  • Jesus paying the temple tax (Mt. 17:24-27)
  • Teaching on the last judgment (Mt. 25:31-46)
  • The death of Judas Iscariot (Mt. 27:3-10)
  • The guards at the tomb of Jesus (Mt. 27:62-66; 28:11-15)
  • The commissioning of the disciples in Galilee (Mt. 28:16-20) 

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The Infancy Narratives in the Gospel of Matthew

The Gospel of Mark mentions nothing of Jesus’ birth or childhood. Mark introduces Jesus as an adult at his baptism in the Jordan River. Mark does mention Jesus’ hometown being Nazareth (6:1-6) and the names of family members (6:3), but nothing of Bethlehem, angelic announcements, or a virgin birth. Only the Gospels of Matthew (1:1-2:23) and Luke (1:5-2:52) describe the miraculous birth of Jesus in Bethlehem (cf. Micah 5:2). Matthew and Luke, however, contain no corresponding episode about the birth of Jesus. Luke describes the day of Jesus' birth (Lk 2:1-20) while Matthew describes the magi arriving sometime after Jesus was born (see Mt. 2:1). The Gospel of John (see Jn. 7:40-43), the letters of Paul (see Gal. 4:4), and the rest of the New Testament never mention Jesus’ miraculous birth.

Like the rest of Matthew, the infancy narratives in Matthew focus primarily on the fulfillment of Old Testament scriptures. Matthew only mentions things about Jesus' birth that point towards scriptural fulfillment. Every episode in the infancy narratives either explicitly or implicitly fulfills some aspect of Jewish expectation. Five times (1:22-23; 2:5-6, 15, 17-18, 23) Matthew includes an actual quotation highlighting Jesus' prophetic fulfillment. These episodes would have been important arguments in the debates between Christian Jews and non-Christian Jews about the identity of Jesus when the Gospel of Matthew was written.

Matthew’s Dependence on Old Testament Scripture in the Infancy Narratives

  • Matthew’s genealogy (1:1-17) echoes the Jewish expectation that the messiah would be a descendant of David (2 Sam. 7:12-17; Isaiah 11:1-9).
  • Matthew 1:22-23 cites Isaiah 7:14 LXX as being fulfilled in Jesus’ birth to a virgin.
  • Matthew 2:5-6 cites Micah 5:2 as being fulfilled in Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem.
  • Matthew’s description of the visit of the magi (2:1-12) echoes Isaiah 60:1-6.
  • Matthew 2:15 cites Hosea 11:1 as being fulfilled in the family’s refuge in Egypt.
  • Matthew 2:17-18 cites Jeremiah 31:15 as being fulfilled in the slaughter of the infants in Bethlehem.
  • Matthew 2:23 cites an unknown prophecy as being fulfilled in Jesus being raised in Nazareth.

The infancy narratives in Matthew begin by tracing Jesus’ genealogy through David to Abraham (1:1-17). This would be important to Jewish readers since the messiah was expected to be a descendant of David. An angel announces to Joseph that Mary, to whom he was betrothed (a legally binding pre-marital commitment), would bear a son even though she was a virgin (1:18-25). After Jesus was born in Bethlehem, magi from the east follow a star and inquire of Herod the Great about a newborn king of the Jews (2:1-8). Herod wants to eliminate the potential threat to his kingship so he asks the magi to report back to him about the location of this newborn king. The magi find Jesus in Bethlehem and worship him. They give him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh (see Isa. 60:1-6). After being warned in a dream, the magi leave without reporting back to Herod (2:9-12). Mary, Joseph, and Jesus then flee to Egypt to escape Herod’s attempts to kill the child (2:13-18). The family then moves to Nazareth after the death of Herod the Great (d. 4 BC) because they were fearful of the reign of Herod's son, Archelaus (2:19-23).

Matthew's infancy narratives are filled with irony. The ones (the magi) who recognize Jesus' identity and worship him are outsiders (Gentiles) while the ones (Herod the Great and the scribes) who do not are insiders (Jewish). Also ironically, the new "king of the Jews" has nothing to do with the then-reigning "king of the Jews" (Herod). Furthermore, the Gospel of Matthew ends with Jesus dying as "King of the Jews" (see Mt. 27:37). The lavish gifts which the magi bring to the infant Jesus are significant because they fulfill scripture (see gold and frankincense in Isa. 60:1-6) and foreshadow Jesus' death (e.g., see myrrh in Jn. 19:39).

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The Temptations of Jesus according to Matthew and Luke

Matthew and Luke both describe Jesus facing three temptations immediately after his baptism (Mt. 4:1-11; Lk. 4:1-12). Mark also describes Jesus being tempted immediately after his baptism, but Mark says nothing about the nature of these temptations (Mk. 1:12-13) as Matthew and Luke do. Matthew and Luke describe Jesus being tempted in three ways (although they reverse the order of the last two):

  1. To turn stones to bread (Mt. 4:1-4; Lk. 4:1-4)
  2. To jump from the pinnacle of the Jerusalem Temple (Mt. 4:5-7; Lk. 4:9-12)
  3. To receive the kingdoms of the world (Mt. 4:8-11; Lk. 4:5-8)

These temptations are significant in the Gospel of Matthew because they indicate what type of messiah Jesus would be. Jesus resists the temptation to become a self-seeking messiah (4:1-4) who would be consumed with selfish interests (see also Mt. 26:53). Jesus resists the temptation to become a sensational messiah (4:5-7) who would wow the crowds with amazing feats (see also Mt. 12:38-39). Jesus also resists the temptation to be a political messiah (4:8-12) who would seek earthly kingdoms (see also Mt. 21:1-9). Josephus describes many bandits, prophets, and messiahs in first-century Palestine that had these characteristics. Matthew and Luke, however, indicate that the nature of Jesus' messiahship was far different.

The Gospel of Matthew basically follows the description of Jesus’ public ministry as narrated in the Gospel of Mark. Like Mark, Matthew and Luke only mention Jesus going to Jerusalem for one annual Jewish festival, that fateful Passover when he dies. Like Mark, Matthew portrays Jesus' activities with numerous echoes to Moses, Elijah, Elisha, and other Hebrew prophets.

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The Teaching of Jesus in Matthew and the Synoptics

In the Synoptic Gospels, the most characteristic form of Jesus’ teaching is the parable. A parable is simply a comparison. Many times parables are brief stories to make a point, but sometimes a parable was a mere statement of comparison. Mark contains a few parables (Mk. 4:1-34) which end up confusing the crowds (see 4:10-12, 33-34). More parables are found in Matthew than Mark, and these often focus on the concept of the kingdom of God (see Mt. 13:1-53). Luke also contains more parables than Mark, but Luke's parables emphasize personal interest in individuals (see Lk. 10-12, 15-16, 18). John, on the other hand, contains no parables.

In the Synoptic Gospels, the central topic of Jesus’ teaching was the "kingdom of God" (although Matthew prefers to use the alternate Jewish expression "kingdom of heaven"). In the Gospels, Jesus makes 61 independent statements about the kingdom of God (not counting the parallels between Gospels). The "kingdom of God" is simply the reign of God or the sovereign rule of God -- in other words, God's rule being established on earth as in heaven. At times, the kingdom of God seems to be present in the very ministry of Jesus (see Mk. 1:15; 9:1; Lk. 10:11; 11:20; 17:20-21) while at other times the kingdom of God sounds like something off in the future (see Mt. 6:10; 20:21; Mk. 14:25). New Testament specialists greatly differ on their explanations about the tension between these present and future aspects of the kingdom. Many New Testament specialists think this tension implies that the kingdom of God began during Jesus' earthly ministry but it will not culminate until he returns.

The Gospel of Mark contains little teaching material of Jesus compared to Matthew, Luke, and John. In Matthew, much of this additional teaching material is found in five sermons. Matthew seems to highlight these five large blocks of text intentionally since each has the same concluding words (7:28; 11:1; 13:53; 19:1; 26:1). Three of these sermons begin with Jesus sitting as he teaches (5:1; 13:1-2; 24:3) since this was the authoritative position used by the rabbis when they taught.

The Five Sermons of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew

(1) Matthew 5:1-7:29

(2) Matthew 10:5-11:1

(3) Matthew 13:1-53

(4) Matthew 18:1-19:1

(5) Matthew 24:1-25:31

"The Sermon on the Mount"

Instructions for the mission of the twelve disciples

Parables of the kingdom of heaven (cf. Mk. 4:1-34)

Teachings on discipleship

"The Eschatological Discourse" (cf. Mk. 13:1-37) which discusses the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 and the return of the son of man.

Many New Testament specialists think that Matthew intentionally highlights these five main sermons to portray Jesus as the new Moses giving the new Torah (which was five books). Matthew also frequently mentions important episodes taking place on mountains such as Jesus giving the "Sermon on the Mount" (see 5:1; 8:1) or commissioning his disciples from a mountain in Galilee (28:16). These mountain experiences in Matthew (see also 15:29) would be reminiscent of Moses receiving the Law on Mount Sinai (see Exodus 19-24).

The first of Jesus’ five sermons in Matthew is called the "Sermon on the Mount" found in Matthew 5:1-7:29. It has many parallels to the "Sermon on the Plain" in Luke 6:20-49. The Sermon on the Mount in Matthew emphasizes Jesus' teaching on the kingdom of God as well as his interpretation of the Torah. This material would have been especially important for Jewish followers of Jesus in the first century.

The Sermon on the Mount starts with a series of Beatitudes (5:3-12). These nine statements are called the Beatitudes because each begins with the word "blessed" (Greek, makarios; Latin, beatus). The people described in each statement would be considered blessed or fortunate despite their circumstances. Matthew's version of the Beatitudes (cf. Lk. 6:17-23) speak against actions and attitudes attributed to the Pharisees (5:3, 6, 7, 8; see also 23:1-36) and the Zealots (5:5, 7, 9). These statements would be important in the first-century Jewish context in which Jesus taught and the Gospel of Matthew was written.

The Beatitudes in Matthew
  • Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. (Mt. 5:3)
  • Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted. (Mt. 5:4)
  • Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth. (Mt. 5:5)
  • Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they will be filled. (Mt. 5:6)
  • Blessed are the merciful, for they will receive mercy. (Mt. 5:7)
  • Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God. (Mt. 5:8)
  • Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children of God. (Mt. 5:9)
  • Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness’ sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. (Mt. 5:10)
  • Blessed are you when people revile you and persecute you and utter all kinds of evil against you falsely on my account. Rejoice and be glad, for your reward is great in heaven, for in the same way they persecuted the prophets who were before you. (Mt. 5:11-12)

The Sermon on the Mount continues when Jesus metaphorically describes his disciples as the "salt of the earth" and the "light of the world" (5:13-16). In a world without refrigeration, salt was a valuable commodity to preserve food. The Romans sometimes even paid their wages with salt, which is where the expression "worth your salt" and the word "salary" (Latin, sal means "salt") originate.

Next, the Sermon on the Mount provides Jesus' interpretation of important Jewish laws with the "Six Antitheses" (5:17-48). In each of the six examples, Jesus states a Jewish law ("you have heard it said . . .") and then he gives his own interpretation ("but I say to you . . ."). These interpretations would have radically gone against the traditional teachings of the first-century rabbis (see 7:28-29). These interpretations would have been important in the debates between Christian Jews and non-Christian Jews about the nature of the Law when the Gospel of Matthew was written.

The Six Antitheses

 

Reference
in Matthew

"You have heard it said to those of ancient times . . ."

Reference in the Old Testament

"But I say to you . . ."

1

5:21-26

do not murder

Exod. 20:13;
Deut. 5:17; 16:18

do not insult or
be angry with anyone

2

5:27-30

do not commit adultery

Exod. 20:14;
Deut. 5:18

do not lust after anyone

3

5:31-32

do not abandon your spouse (i.e., make divorce official)

Deut. 24:1-4

do not divorce,
except for unfaithfulness

4

5:33-37

do not swear falsely;
carry out your vows

Lev. 19:12;
Num. 30:2;
Deut. 23:21

do not swear at all;
simply be true
to your word

5

5:38-42

"an eye for an eye,
a tooth for a tooth"
(equivalent retaliation
is just punishment)

Exod. 21:23-24; Lev. 24:19-20; Deut. 19:21

be willing to suffer
an injustice
(do not resist an evildoer; turn the other cheek;
go the second mile)

6

5:43-48

love your neighbor (fellow Jew) but hate your enemy (Gentiles, such as Romans)

Lev. 19:18 and
oral tradition

love your enemies;
pray for those who persecute you

Next in the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus warns against publicizing one’s spirituality regarding: (1) almsgiving (6:1-4); (2) prayer (6:5-15); and (3) fasting (6:16-18). "The Lord's Prayer" is provided as a model for prayer (6:9-13) and divine forgiveness is taught to be contingent upon one’s willingness to forgive others (6:14-15).

The Sermon on the Mount continues by addressing various topics such as . . .

the importance of the kingdom of God over and against material possessions (6:19-34):

  • "But strive first for the kingdom of God and his righteousness, and all these things will be given to you as well." (Matt. 6:33)

not criticizing others (7:1-5):

  • "Do not judge, so that you may not be judged." (Matt. 7:1)

the simplicity of prayer (7:7-11):

  • "Ask, and it will be given you; search, and you will find; knock, and the door will be opened for you. For everyone who asks receives, and everyone who searches finds, and for everyone who knocks, the door will be opened." (Matt. 7:7-8)

The Sermon on the Mount concludes with an emphasis on living out the higher righteousness that Jesus was describing (7:12-27). The "Golden Rule" (7:12) offers a positive summation of the Torah. The sermon ends with a series of comparisons between the wide and narrow way (7:13-14), true and false prophets (7:15-16a), good and bad trees (7:17-20), true and false disciples (7:21-23), and active versus passive responses to Jesus’ message (7:24-27). This section emphasizes active obedience to Jesus’ message as seen in what a person does (7:12, 16, 20-21, 24, 26).

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The Passion Narratives in Matthew

Matthew’s version of the Passion Narratives closely follows Mark’s. Matthew implies more culpability towards the Jews for the death of Jesus by mentioning Pilate washing his hands of the matter (27:24-25). Matthew indicates more about Judas’ treachery by describing his motivation as greed and his remorseful death as suicide by hanging (27:3-10).

The description of the empty tomb in the Gospel of Mark has many hanging endings. Women disciples find the tomb of Jesus empty but then flee without saying anything to anyone about Jesus' resurrection (Mk. 16:1-8). Also, twice Mark indicates that Jesus was to appear to the disciples in Galilee (14:28; 16:7) yet the Gospel of Mark ends without any such fulfillment.

Matthew resolves these issues by continuing the story of Jesus’ resurrection beyond the empty tomb found by the women. According to Matthew, the women tell the other disciples about Jesus being raised (28:8) and even meet the resurrected Jesus on the way (28:9-10). Furthermore, Matthew alone tells the story of Roman guards at the tomb of Jesus being bribed to lie by saying that the body of Jesus had been stolen by the disciples (27:62-66; 28:11-15). This episode indicates the tension between Christian Jews and non-Christian Jews over the resurrection of Jesus when the Gospel of Matthew was written (see especially Mt. 28:15b). Finally, the Gospel of Matthew culminates when Jesus appears to his disciples in Galilee as expected (see Mt. 26:32; 28:7, 10) and he commissions them to make disciples of the Gentiles (28:16-20).

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The Gospel According to Luke

Background and Historical Context

The Gospel of Luke is the first part of a two-volume work that continues in the Acts of the Apostles. Church tradition states that Luke, the friend of Paul, wrote both volumes. Internal evidence from the Gospel itself indicates that the anonymous author consulted several sources and wrote Luke-Acts for an otherwise unknown Roman official named Theophilus and a wider Gentile audience sometime after the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. Since Theophilus would have been an outsider to Jewish things, Luke and Acts consistently emphasize Jesus' openness towards outsiders and outcasts.

The majority of New Testament specialists think that the Gospel of Luke was written based on Mark and a collection of Jesus’ sayings known as Q. While the Q material is found predominantly in five large sermons in Matthew, the Q material in Luke is spread throughout the Gospel in smaller pieces.

Like Matthew, Luke basically follows the description of Jesus’ public ministry as narrated in the Gospel of Mark (except for Mark 6:45-8:26). Like Mark and Matthew, Luke describes Jesus going to Jerusalem for only one annual festival as an adult. However, Luke's description of that journey to Jerusalem is significantly longer (Lk. 9:51-19:27) than Mark's (Mk. 10:1-52). In a manner similar to Matthew, Luke includes additional material beyond Mark at the beginning and ending of the Gospel about Jesus' birth (Lk. 1:1-2:52) and resurrection (Lk. 24:8-53). However, none of the episodes corresponds to Matthew's additional episodes at these same places (Mt. 1:1-2:23; 28:8-20).

Internal Evidence for the Origination of the Gospel According to Luke

  • Dependence upon the Gospel of Mark for content, wording, and arrangement of episodes (although Luke never mentions material from Mark 6:45-8:26).
  • Much similarity between the teaching material of Jesus in Luke to that found in Matthew but not found in Mark. This is the hypothesized Q material.
  • Part of a two-volume work continues in the Acts of the Apostles (Lk. 1:1-4; Acts 1:1-2)
  • Written after "many" had attempted to record the life of Jesus (Lk. 1:1)
  • The anonymous author was not an eye-witness of the life of Jesus (Lk. 1:1-4)
  • Addressed to Theophilus (Lk. 1:3; Acts 1:1)
  • Explicit references to the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in AD 70 (Lk. 19:41-44; 21:20-24)
  • Increased openness towards Gentiles, Samaritans, and other Jewish outcasts
  • Emphasis on the innocence of Jesus and his followers in the eyes of the Romans.

 

Major Passages Unique to Luke

  • The infancy narratives (Lk. 1:5-2:52), including:
    • The annunciation and birth of John the Baptist (Lk. 1:5-25, 57-80)
    • The annunciation to Mary (Lk. 1:26-38)
    • Mary’s visit to Elizabeth (Lk. 1:39-56)
    • The birth of Jesus and the arrival of the shepherds (2:1-20)
    • The presentation of Jesus in the temple as an infant (2:21-40)
    • Jesus in the temple at age twelve (2:41-52)
  • John the Baptist’s preaching to special groups (Lk. 3:10-14)
  • Jesus sermon at Nazareth (Lk. 4:16-30)
  • The miraculous catch of fish (Lk. 5:1-11)
  • Woes to the comfortable (Lk. 6:24-26)
  • Raising the widow’s son at Nain (Lk. 7:11-17)
  • Women disciples (Lk. 8:1-3)
  • Luke’s version of the journey to Jerusalem (Lk. 9:51-18:14), including:
    • Mercy on the Samaritans (Lk. 9:51-56)
    • Parable of the Good Samaritan (Lk. 10:29-37)
    • Mary and Martha (Lk. 10:38-42)
    • Parable of the friend at midnight (Lk. 11:5-8)
    • Parable of the rich fool (Lk. 12:13-21)
    • Teaching on repentance (Lk. 13:1-9)
    • Healing of a crippled woman (Lk. 13:10-17)
    • Healing a man with dropsy (Lk. 14:1-6)
    • Parable of the wedding banquet (Lk. 14:7-14)
    • Teaching on the cost of discipleship (Lk. 14:25-35)
    • Parable of the lost sheep (Lk. 15:1-7)
    • Parable of the lost coin (Lk. 15:8-10)
    • Parable of the "prodigal son" (Lk. 15:11-32)
    • Parable of the unjust manager (Lk. 16:1-15)
    • Parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk. 16:19-31)
    • The healing of ten lepers (Lk. 17:11-19)
    • Teaching on the kingdom of God (Lk. 17:20-21)
    • Parable of the widow and the unjust judge (Lk. 18:1-8)
    • Parable of the Pharisee and the tax-collector (Lk. 18:9-14)
    • The repentance of Zacchaeus, the tax-collector (Lk. 19:1-10)
    • Teaching on the destruction of Jerusalem (Lk. 19:39-44)
  • Episodes from Luke’s version of the Passion Narrative:
    • Teaching during the last supper (Lk. 22:21-38)
    • Jesus on trial before Herod Antipas (Lk. 23:6-16)
    • Penitent crucified victim on Jesus’ right (Lk. 23:39-43)
    • Two disciples on the road to Emmaus (Lk. 24:13-35)
    • Jesus appears to the disciples in Jerusalem (Lk. 24:36-49)
    • The ascension of Jesus (Lk. 24:50-53; Acts 1:9-11)
  • The Acts of the Apostles

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The Infancy Narratives in Luke

Luke's infancy narratives describe the birth of John the Baptist (1:5-80) before describing the birth of Jesus (2:1-52). Many parallels exist between the two births, but Luke consistently shows Jesus to be greater than John the Baptist. This would be important since at the beginning of Jesus' public ministry, John baptizes Jesus instead of vice versa (3:21-22). John the Baptist was greatly revered in the minds of many in the first century (see Acts 18:24-25; 19:1-7). Luke is careful to show that Jesus was greater than John the Baptist even in their births.

The Gospel of Luke and the book of Acts have a penchant for speeches. Luke's infancy narratives include four poetic speeches (Lk 1:46-55, 67-79; 2:14, 28-32) that emphasize God’s work among the lowly. Luke’s infancy narratives also have numerous echoes to the birth of Samuel (1 Sam. 1:1-4:1).

John was born to a priest named Zechariah and his barren wife Elizabeth (1:5-80) who were well beyond their child-bearing years. According to Luke, an angel then announces to Mary that she will bear a son even though she is a virgin. Luke describes Mary and Joseph being from Nazareth but because of a government registration they travel to Bethlehem where Jesus was born (2:1-7). After the birth, angels appear announcing the occasion to shepherds (2:8-14).

As a newborn, Jesus is identified in the Temple as the expected one by two elderly worshipers (2:25-38). The only story regarding Jesus’ childhood in any of the canonical Gospels is Luke’s account of Jesus in the Temple at age twelve (2:41-52). In the episode, Jesus amazes the teachers in the Temple with his wisdom. When his parents find him in the Temple, he mystifies them by declaring that he had to be in his Father's house (2:49).

Like Matthew, Luke 1:5 describes Jesus being born during the reign of Herod the Great who died in 4 BC. Nevertheless, Matthew and Luke never pinpoint the date of Jesus' birth, whether the day, month, or year. Luke does mention a registration taking place while Quirinius was governor of Syria (Lk. 2:1-2), but it has long been known (see Tertullian, Against Marcion 4.19.10 in the early third century, for example) that this raises unanswerable questions since the only known census under Quirinius took place in AD 6, ten years after Herod the Great died (see Acts 5:37 and Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 18.1). The date of Jesus' birth is usually assigned to sometime before Herod's death in 4 BC -- often to 6 BC since Matthew 2:16 describes Herod killing infants up to two years old in his attempts to get rid of Jesus.

The Gospels also indicate virtually nothing about the time of year in which Jesus was born. The celebration of Jesus' birth on December 25th (or January 6th) is most likely due to a combination of Roman festivals with Christian significance in the fourth century. Most Jews and Christians of the first several centuries A.D. did not celebrate birthdays.

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The Teaching of Jesus in the Gospel of Luke

More than the other Gospels combined, Luke takes a special interest in the outcasts of society. Luke repeatedly describes the actions and teachings of Jesus to welcome Gentiles, Samaritans, lepers, tax collectors, sinners, the poor, and other outcasts into God’s kingdom. Luke's infancy narratives describe Mary and Joseph as poor peasants who were blessed for their piety. When Jesus was born, angels announce it only to shepherds who were usually unwelcome to social occasions. According to Luke, the opening speech for Jesus' public ministry is his sermon in the synagogue of Nazareth (Lk. 4:16-30). In that sermon, Jesus emphasizes God’s concern for the Gentiles, the poor, and the oppressed.

One of the most noticeable differences between Mark and Luke is their description of Jesus' final journey to Jerusalem. In Mark, the journey is described in 52 verses (Mk. 10:1-52) whereas in Luke it is eight times as long (Lk. 9:51-19:27). Luke's version is so much longer because a significant amount of Jesus' teaching is included along the way as he travels to Jerusalem. In the midst of this seemingly never-ending trip, Luke records numerous parables and teachings that are unique to the Gospel of Luke and that bring out Luke’s special emphasis for outcasts. At the end of that journey before ultimately entering Jerusalem, Luke describes Jesus accepting a chief tax collector in Jericho named Zacchaeus, even though he was despised by his fellow Jews (Lk. 19:1-10).

The parables in Luke take a decidedly personal interest in people, especially the ostracized. "The Parable of the Good Samaritan" (Lk. 10:25-37) applauds a Samaritan for his compassion while exposing the callous insensitivity of two Temple workers. Three successive parables in Luke 15 highlight the joy of finding what was lost (Lk. 15:3-7, 8-10, 11-32). The last of these three parables is the "Parable of the Prodigal Son" (Lk. 15:11-32) in which a wayward son is graciously welcomed home by his waiting father. The parable is set in the context of the Pharisees and scribes complaining about Jesus eating with tax collectors and sinners (see Lk. 15:1-2). The parable exposes the self-righteous attitude of the older brother (read: Pharisees and scribes) who was unwilling to welcome home and forgive his wasteful brother (read: tax-collectors and sinners). In the "Parable of the Pharisee and the Tax Collector" (Lk. 18:9-14), Jesus teaches God’s acceptance of a remorseful tax collector and God’s rejection of a self-righteous Pharisee.

Luke emphasizes a great reversal in society in which the last will be first and the first last (Lk. 13:30). This great reversal can especially be seen in Luke's version of the Beatitudes (Lk. 6:20-26; cf. Matt 5:3-12). The religiously arrogant are rejected while sinners are forgiven and accepted (14:15-24). Women are included along with men with openness and respect (Lk. 8:1-3; 10:38-42; 23:27-31; 23:55-24:11). The poor are encouraged and accepted while the rich are rebuked (Lk. 6:20-26; 12:13-21; 14:15-24; 16:19-31). Luke repeatedly shows Jesus’ compassion for the oppressed and marginalized of society.

The Beatitudes in Luke
  • Blessed are you who are poor, for yours is the kingdom of God. (Luke 6:20)
  • Blessed are you who are hungry now, for you will be filled. (Luke 6:21a)
  • Blessed are you who weep now, for you will laugh. (Luke 6:21b)
  • Blessed are you when people hate you, and when they exclude you, revile you, and defame you on account of the Son of Man. Rejoice in that day and leap for joy, for surely your reward is great in heaven; for that is what their ancestors did to the prophets. (Luke 6:22-23)
  • But woe to you who are rich, for you have received your consolation. (Luke 6:24)
  • Woe to you who are full now, for you will be hungry. (Luke 6:25a)
  • Woe to you who are laughing now, for you will mourn and weep. (Luke 6:25b)
  • Woe to you when all speak well of you, for that is what their ancestors did to the false prophets. (Luke 6:26)

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The Passion Narrative in Luke

Like Matthew, the passion narrative in Luke basically follows the sequence and wording as found in Mark. Luke, however, emphasizes Jesus’ innocence in the eyes of Roman officials, despite his crucifixion. According to Luke, Pilate declares Jesus’ innocence on three separate occasions (23:4, 14, 22). Luke describes Pilate making three unsuccessful attempts to release Jesus. First, Luke alone mentions Pilate sending Jesus to appear before Herod Antipas, the ruler of Galilee, who happened to be in Jerusalem (23:6-12). Antipas finds nothing incriminating about Jesus (23:15) so he sends him back to Pilate. Second, Luke describes Pilate having Jesus flogged in order to appease the crowds that were against him (23:16). Third (see 23:22), Luke describes Pilate offering Jesus alongside Barabbas in anticipation that the crowds would pick Jesus to be released (23:18-25). Luke describes a frustrated Pilate exhausting his options to the point that he has no other choice but to have Jesus crucified. According to Luke, even the Roman centurion at the foot of Jesus' cross declares "Certainly this man was innocent" (23:47). Jesus' innocence would be especially important to Theophilus (a Roman official) because he would have no interest in becoming a follower of an executed criminal.

Like Matthew, Luke describes Jesus appearing to his disciples after the resurrection. Luke, however, describes all the appearances taking place in Jerusalem (not Galilee) from where he ascends to heaven (24:13-53). Luke's emphasis on Jerusalem is important since his next volume (the Acts of the Apostles) begins with the disciples in Jerusalem where Jesus had been seen and had ascended to heaven (Lk. 24:50-53; Acts 1:1-12).

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The Gospel According to John ("The Fourth Gospel")

Background and Historical Context

Church tradition states that the Apostle John wrote this Gospel as an elderly man in Ephesus, even though he is never named or mentioned in the Gospel (except an allusion to the "sons of Zebedee" in 21:2). In the Gospel of John, an unidentified "Beloved Disciple" appears throughout the Passion Narratives (13:21-30; 19:26-27, 35; 20:2, 8-9; 21:2, 7, 20-25) and is credited as being the source for this Gospel (21:24). Church tradition assumed that this unnamed "Beloved Disciple" was the Apostle John. Many New Testament specialists today doubt this assumption since the Fourth Gospel includes no information about episodes in Matthew, Mark, or Luke which specifically mention John or his brother James (see Mk. 5:35-43; 9:2-8; 10:35-44; 13:3-37; 14:32-42). Most New Testament specialists think that the Fourth Gospel is the product of a distinct group of believers sometimes called the "Johannine School" or the "Community of the Beloved Disciple." The letters known as 1-2-3 John are also considered to be the products of this same group and may have been written to counteract some misunderstandings about this Gospel.

Most New Testament specialists think that the Gospel of John was the last of the canonical Gospels to be written, possibly around AD 90-100 (which is why it is often called the "Fourth Gospel"). Similar to the Gospel of Matthew, the Fourth Gospel seems to have been written during a time of tension between Christian Jews and non-Christian Jews in the synagogues (see Jn. 9:22; 12:42; 16:2). This tension is often "mirrored" in Jesus' constant dialogues with "the Jews" (the repeated designation of Jesus' opponents throughout the Fourth Gospel).

The Fourth Gospel explicitly states that its purpose is to reveal Jesus' divine identity:

  • "Now Jesus did many other signs in the presence of his disciples, which are not written in this book. But these are written so that you may come to believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that through believing you may have life in his name." –John 20:30-31

The Fourth Gospel is remarkably independent from Matthew, Mark, and Luke. There are few parallels between John and the Synoptic Gospels in terms of content, wording, or arrangement.

Significant material from the Synoptic Gospels that the Fourth Gospel never mentions:

  • The birth of Jesus (cf. Jn. 1:45; 6:42; 7:40-43)
  • The baptism of Jesus (cf. Jn. 1:29-34)
  • The temptations of Jesus
  • The confession of Peter at Caesarea Philippi (cf. Jn. 1:42) and the transfiguration of Jesus
  • All miracles of Jesus (including all exorcisms), except seven dramatic "signs" (only two of which have parallels in the Synoptic Gospels)
  • The Sermon on the Mount and all the "Q-material"
  • All the parables of Jesus
  • All references to the "kingdom of God" except two independent references (cf. Jn. 3:3, 5)
  • The institution of the Lord’s Supper (cf. Jn. 6:51-58)

Significant material that is unique to the Fourth Gospel (not found in the Synoptic Gospels)

  • Jesus turns water to wine at a wedding in Cana (Jn. 2:1-12)
  • Jesus converses with a Pharisee named Nicodemus (Jn. 3:1-15)
  • Jesus converses with a Samaritan woman at a well (Jn. 4:1-42)
  • Jesus heals a crippled man in Jerusalem (Jn. 5:1-18)
  • Jesus heals a blind man in Jerusalem (Jn. 9:1-41)
  • Jesus raises Lazarus from the dead (Jn. 11:1-57).
  • Jesus washes the disciples’ feet (Jn. 13:1-20)
  • Jesus gives a lengthy farewell address to his disciples (Jn. 13:21-17:26)

Significant "overlap" material that the Fourth Gospel treats differently than the Synoptic Gospels

  • The teaching of Jesus (no parables, mostly long conversations)
  • The ministry of John the Baptist
  • The calling of the disciples (cf. Jn. 1:35-51)
  • The cleansing of the Temple (cf. Jn. 2:13-25; Mk. 11:15-19)
  • The duration of Jesus’ ministry (cf. Jn 2:13; 6:4; 11:55)
  • The arrest of Jesus on the Mount of Olives (cf. Jn. 18:1-12; Mk. 14:43-50)
  • The trials of Jesus (cf. Jn. 18:13-19:15)
  • The date and time of Jesus’ death (cf. Jn. 19:14; Mk. 14:12, 16; 15:25)
  • The burial of Jesus’ body and the scene at the empty tomb (cf. Jn. 19:38-20:18)
  • The giving of the Spirit and the commissioning of the disciples (cf. Jn. 20:19-23; Mt. 28:16-20; Lk. 24:36-53; Acts 1:3-2:42)

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The "Book of Signs" (John 1:19-12:50)

The Fourth Gospel begins with a prologue that theologically introduces Jesus' divine identity (1:1-18) and ends with an epilogue that concludes Jesus' resurrection (21:1-25). Instead of describing Jesus' birth (as Matthew and Luke do), the Fourth Gospel traces Jesus' divine origins back into eternity. The philosophical prologue (1:1-18) describes Jesus as the pre-existent, divine "Word" (Greek, logos) which became incarnate (1:1-2, 14). The prologue introduces many of the major themes that are found throughout the Fourth Gospel such as Jesus' divine nature, Jesus' pre-existence, light, darkness, belief, the world, irony, being born from above, glory, truth, and Jesus' oneness with the Father.

After the prologue, the Fourth Gospel essentially divides into two halves, describing Jesus' public ministry (1:19-12:50) and then his death (13:1-20:31). The first half of the Fourth Gospel (1:19-12:50) focuses on seven dramatic signs that Jesus performs. The Fourth Gospel consistently refers to these miracles as "signs" (see 2:11, 18, 23; 3:2; 4:48, 54; 6:2, 14, 26, 30; 7:31; 9:16; 10:41; 11:47; 12:18, 37; 20:30). These signs are intended to reveal Jesus' identity (see especially 6:35; 9:5, 35-38; 11:25-27; 20:30-31) and to evoke faith in Jesus (2:11, 23-25; 4:53; 9:35-38; 11:45; 12:10-11, 37-41; 20:30-31, which ultimately leads to the crisis causing his death (11:45-53; 12:9-11, 36-43).

Jesus’ "Signs" in the Fourth Gospel

  1. Turning water into wine at a wedding in Cana (2:1-11)
  2. Healing the official’s son in Capernaum (4:46-54)
  3. Healing the paralytic by a pool in Jerusalem (5:2-9)
  4. Feeding 5000 (6:1-14)
  5. Walking on water (6:16-21)
  6. Healing the man born blind in Jerusalem (9:1-12)
  7. Raising Lazarus from the dead in Bethany (11:1-44)

"Now Jesus did many other signs in the presence of his disciples, which are not written in this book. But these are written so that you may come to believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that through believing you may have life in his name." –John 20:30-31

Instead of focusing on Jesus’ ministry in Galilee as the Synoptic Gospels do, most of the episodes in the Fourth Gospel take place in Judea as Jesus attends the various Jewish festivals in Jerusalem (2:13; 5:1; 6:4; 7:2; 10:22; 13:1). The Fourth Gospel portrays Jesus as the ultimate fulfillment of the festivals, especially Tabernacles (7:37-38; 8:12) and Passover (1:29, 36; 19:14). Since the Gospel of John mentions three separate Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1), Christians traditionally have viewed the public ministry of Jesus lasting three years.

The content and form of Jesus' teaching in the Fourth Gospel is distinct compared to the Synoptic Gospels. In the Fourth Gospel, Jesus never speaks in parables and rarely about the "kingdom of God" (only in 3:3, 5). Most of Jesus’ teachings in the Fourth Gospel come in the form of extended dialogues with various people such as Nicodemus (3:1-21), a Samaritan woman (4:1-42), the disciples (6:60-71; 13:1-16:33), and "the Jews" (5:10-47; 6:41-59; 7:14-24; 8:12-59; 9:35-10:39). Often these dialogues revolve around misunderstandings of Jesus' statements that carry intentional double-meanings (see 2:19-21; 3:3-5; 4:10-15, 31-34; 6:32-35, 51-53; 7:33-36; 8:21-22, 31-35, 51-53, 56-58; 11:11-15, 23-25; 12:32-34; 13:36-38; 14:4-6, 7-9; 16:16-19). On one occasion, Jesus tells the Jewish leaders, "Destroy this temple and in three days I'll raise it up." The Jewish leaders misunderstand Jesus to imply the Temple building in Jerusalem, but instead he was metaphorically referring to his own body (2:19-21). When Jesus tells Nicodemus that he must be "born anothen" (Greek meaning both "again" and "from above"), Nicodemus misunderstands it to mean being born physically a second time when Jesus intended it to mean being born from above (3:3-7). When Jesus converses with a Samaritan woman at a well, Jesus tells her that she should have asked for "living water" (4:10-15). She misunderstands Jesus to imply actual "running water" instead of spiritual "life-giving water."

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The "Book of Glory" (John 13:1-20:31)

The second half of the Fourth Gospel (13:1-20:31) focuses on the events leading to the death of Jesus. This half of the Fourth Gospel basically contains seven major sections:

  1. Jesus' last meal with his disciples and his lengthy farewell discourse with them (13:1-17:26)
  2. The arrest of Jesus in the garden (18:1-12)
  3. The trial of Jesus before Annas (father-in-law of the Jewish high priest) and the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate (18:13-19:16)
  4. The crucifixion of Jesus (19:17-37)
  5. The tomb of Jesus where he was buried, raised, and seen by Mary Magdalene (19:38-20:18)
  6. The appearances of Jesus to the disciples in Jerusalem (20:19-31)
  7. The appearance of Jesus to seven disciples at the lake in Galilee (21:1-25)

While narrating these episodes, the Fourth Gospel reveals the significance of Jesus' death. Even though crucifixion was considered the most humiliating and demeaning form of death, the Fourth Gospel repeatedly and ironically describes Jesus' death as the time of his glory (see especially 13:31-32; 17:1-5). Several times, the Fourth Gospel describes Jesus' death in terms of Jesus being "lifted up" (3:14; 8:28; 12:32-34). This phrase carried an ironic double meaning because it implied that Jesus was both physically lifted up on a cross and metaphorically exalted (see Gen 40:13, 19 for the same play on words). The irony is that crucifixion never would have been considered exaltation in the ancient world. The Fourth Gospel shows Jesus’ crucifixion to be the glorious culmination of his earthly mission, not a shameful and unexpected end to his work (17:1-5; 18:37).

The Fourth Gospel emphasizes Jesus being in complete control of the events which led to his death. Jesus is not caught unaware when Judas betrays him because he had already announced it ahead of time (13:21-26) and even sent Judas to do it (13:27-30). When Jesus is arrested in the garden, Jesus initiates the conversation with his captors and even insists on being arrested (18:1-12). When Jesus stands trial before Pilate, Jesus ends up questioning Pilate (18:34) and one-upping his authority (18:36-37; 19:10-11). When Jesus goes to be crucified, he carries the cross by himself (19:17). When Jesus is crucified, he ensures that all scripture had been fulfilled before he chooses to die (19:28-30). This repeated emphasis on control is significant because the Fourth Gospel emphasizes that Jesus' life was not taken by Judas, the Jewish leaders, Pilate, or the Romans. Instead, it was sacrificially given:

  • 10:11 "I am the good shepherd. The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep. . . . 15 . . . I lay down my life for the sheep. . . . 17 For this reason the Father loves me, because I lay down my life in order to take it up again. 18 No one takes it from me, but I lay it down of my own accord. I have power to lay it down, and I have power to take it up again. . . ." (John 10:11, 15, 17-18)

Another aspect of Jesus' control of the events which led to his death is the timing of it. Frequently in the first half of the Fourth Gospel, mention is made that Jesus' "hour" or "time" had not yet come (2:4; 7:6-8, 30; 8:20). The second half of the Fourth Gospel repeatedly emphasizes that his "hour" had come during that final fateful Passover (12:23, 27; 13:1; 17:1). This divine timing indicates that Jesus' death was part of an ultimate plan that carried theological importance. This timing is significant because the Fourth Gospel describes Jesus dying at the very time that the Passover Lambs were being slaughtered (19:14). The Fourth Gospel has painted an unmistakable portrait that Jesus was the ultimate sacrificial "Lamb of God" (see 1:29, 34; 19:14). This portrait even includes specific Passover details such as hyssop being used (Jn. 19:29; Exod. 12:22) and Jesus' bones being unbroken (Jn. 19:32-37; Exod. 12:46; Num. 9:12).

Overall, the Fourth Gospel paints a very exalted portrait of Jesus. The Fourth Gospel applies numerous exalted titles to Jesus such as the divine "Word" (1:1-2, 14), "Lamb of God" (1:29, 34), "Messiah" (1:41; 4:29; 7:26-42; 9:22; 11:27; 12:34), "the prophet" (4:19; 6:14; 7:40; 9:17), the "unique" Son of God (1:14, 18; 3:16, 18), the "King of Israel" (1:49, 12:13), the "Savior of the world" (4:42), and even "Lord" and "God" (9:35-38; 20:18, 28; 21:7). The Fourth Gospel does not hesitate to describe Jesus as being divine. Many divine attributes are ascribed to Jesus in the Fourth Gospel:

Pre-Existence:

  • "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was in the beginning with God. All things came into being through him, and without him not one thing came into being. What has come into being in him was life, and the life was the light of all people." (John 1:1-4)
  • "Jesus said to them, 'Very truly, I tell you, before Abraham was, I am.'" (John 8:58)
  • (Jesus said,) "So now, Father, glorify me in your own presence with the glory that I had in your presence before the world existed." (17:5)

Omniscience:

  • "But Jesus on his part would not entrust himself to them, because he knew all people and needed no one to testify about anyone; for he himself knew what was in everyone." (John 2:24-25)
  • ". . . For Jesus knew from the first who were the ones that did not believe, and who was the one that would betray him." (John 6:64)
  • "Now before the festival of the Passover, Jesus knew that his hour had come to depart from this world and go to the Father. Having loved his own who were in the world, he loved them to the end. The devil had already put it into the heart of Judas son of Simon Iscariot to betray him. And during supper Jesus, knowing that the Father had given all things into his hands, and that he had come from God and was going to God, . . ." (John 13:1-3)
  • See also John 1:47-50; 2:24-25; 4:16-19; 6:64; 13:11

Oneness with the Father:

  • "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." (John 1:1)
  • (Jesus said,) "The Father and I are one." (John 10:30)
  • "Whoever has seen me [Jesus] has seen the Father. . . ." (John 14:9)
  • See also John 1:18; 6:46; 8:19; 12:44-45; 14:20; 17:11

In the Fourth Gospel, Jesus often refers to himself figuratively with emphatic "I AM" statements (Greek, ego eimi). These "I AM" statements are especially noticeable in the Fourth Gospel since the Synoptic Gospels rarely use such language (see Mk. 6:50; 14:62). Since these "I AM" statements were rooted etymologically in the origins of the name "Yahweh" (see Exodus 3:13-15), they were understood to carry divine weight (see 8:58-59; 18:4-8). Many of the emphatic "I AM" statements in the Fourth Gospel have explicit predicate nominatives while others do not and are difficult to detect in English (see 4:25-26; 6:20; 8:24, 28, 58; 13:19; 18:4-8). Some of the "I AM" statements are contextualized with a strong connection to one of Jesus' signs (6:35; 9:5; 11:25-27). The "I AM" statements play an important role in the Fourth Gospel since they reveal Jesus' identity, which is the very purpose of this Gospel (20:30-31).

Significant "I AM" Statements with Predicate Nominatives

  • "I am the bread of life. Whoever comes to me will never be hungry, and whoever believes in me will never be thirsty." (John 6:35)
  • "I am the light of the world. Whoever follows me will never walk in darkness but will have the light of life." (John 8:12)
  • "I am the gate. Whoever enters by me will be saved, and will come in and go out and find pasture." (John 10:9)
  • "I am the good shepherd. The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep." (John 10:11)
  • "I am the resurrection and the life. Those who believe in me, even though they die, will live, and everyone who lives and believes in me will never die." (John 11:25-26a)
  • "I am the way, the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me." (John 14:6)
  • "I am the vine, you are the branches. Those who abide in me and I in them bear much fruit, because apart from me you can do nothing." (John 15:5)

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Key Terms and Concepts for Review:

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Where to Next?

Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible [NRSV], copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

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