UNIT 4: NEW TESTAMENT BACKGROUNDS
Unit 4 of CST100 surveys the backgrounds to the New Testament. The main sections for Unit 4 are:
The recommending readings from the Bible for this unit of material are the following chapters: Daniel 1-7.
The narratives of the Old Testament stop in the 400s BC during the times of Ezra the scribe. Many developments occur in the areas of history, literature, theology, and politics during the ensuing centuries before Jesus hits the scene. In the Gospels, Jesus is attacked by the Pharisees and Sadducees, yet these groups are never mentioned in the Old Testament because they did not exist yet. In the Gospels, Jesus repeatedly casts out demons, yet demons are never mentioned in the Old Testament. In the Gospels, Jesus is often preaching about an afterlife that will involve judgment for the wicked and reward for the righteous, yet the Old Testament has few echoes of such thought. The times of Ezra were dominated by Persian Empire whereas the Jews of Jesus' time are subjugated to the Romans -- and in between the Greeks dominated the scene. To properly understand the New Testament, one must understand the developments which take place between the times of Ezra and Jesus.
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Significant Dates during the Greek and Roman Periods |
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331 BC |
Judah under Greek Rule. Judah, along with the rest of Syria and Palestine, becomes part of the Greek empire of Alexander the Great. |
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323 BC |
The Death of Alexander the Great. Alexander dies and his empire is divided among his generals, the Diadochoi. The Ptolemies ruling from Alexandria, Egypt and the Seleucids ruling from Antioch, Syria then control Palestine. |
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167-161 BC |
The Maccabean Revolt. Mattathias and his sons revolt against the hellenizing policies of Antiochus 4 Epiphanes. |
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164 BC |
Temple Cleansed. Judas the Maccabee retakes the temple from the Seleucids. He rededicates it and institutes the festival of Dedication ("Hanukkah"). |
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142 BC |
Jewish Independence under the Hasmoneans. Simon gains complete independence from the Syrians and begins the Hasmonean dynasty. |
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63 BC |
Judah under Roman Rule. Jerusalem and Judea become subjects of the Roman Empire when Pompey enters Jerusalem. |
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20 BC |
Renovations to the Temple. Herod the Great begins work to renovate and expand the Jerusalem temple. The work is not complete until AD 64. |
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4 BC |
Death of Herod the Great. The Roman-appointed King Herod the Great took control of Judah in 37 BC and ruled with an iron hand until his death. |
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ca. AD 30 |
Death of Jesus of Nazareth. The Romans under Pontius Pilate crucify Jesus at the demand of Jewish leaders in Jerusalem. |
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AD 64 |
The Fire in Rome. Rome burns and Nero blames it on Christians who are then ruthlessly slaughtered by Nero. |
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AD 66-73 |
The First Jewish Revolt Against Rome. Anti-Roman sentiments in Jerusalem become violent as the Jews take arms and rebel against Roman rule. |
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AD 70 |
The Fall of Jerusalem to the Romans. The Roman troops under Titus break through the walls of Jerusalem, destroy the city, and burn the Jerusalem temple. |
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AD 132-135 |
The Second Jewish Revolt Against Rome. Rabbi Akiba proclaims Simon bar Kochba to be the messiah. The Roman troops under Hadrian raze Jerusalem and make it a purely Gentile city. |
The Persian Empire had released the Jewish people from their Exile in Babylon in 538 BC. The Persians had given the people of Judah (now called "Jews") remarkable freedom in their land. But in the 300s BC, the Persian domination of the Ancient Near East came to an end with the rise of the Greeks. Philip 2 of Macedon was the first Greek general to unite the formerly independent Greek city-states. Together, they became a formidable foe to the Persians. After Philip was assassinated, his son Alexander the Great took over.
Alexander and the Greek armies first defeated the Persians in 333 BC in what is now modern Turkey. Instead of pursuing the Persian armies east towards their capital, Alexander turned his attention toward the south and conquered Palestine. This area fell rapidly to the swiftly moving Greek army. Without a battle, Jerusalem surrendered to the Greeks and Alexander made contact with the priests. Jerusalem was now under the control of the Greeks, not the Persians. Alexander continued southward and conquered Egypt. He built the city of Alexandria to become the epitome of Greek culture in that corner of the world. Alexandria had a world-famous library and lighthouse, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.
After conquering Egypt, Alexander then continued eastward through the remnants of the Persian Empire. One by one the Persian cities of Arbela, Susa, Ecbatana, and Persepolis fell to the swiftly advancing Greek army. Alexander and his troops continued eastward until they reached the Indus River, which is the border of modern India. At this point, Alexander's armies began their return westward toward home.
Alexander and his conquests are significant because he did not simply conquer the world; he revolutionized it. Hellenism is the term which describes the spread of the Greek language and culture by the Greeks in their conquests. Hellenism caused the world to take on a decidedly Greek appearance. The cities had Greek structures such as theatres, gymnasia, stoa, and amphitheatres. The Greek coinage united the world with one currency which facilitated widespread trade and commerce. The Greek language spread throughout the world which helped travel and communication. This common Greek (or "koine" Greek as it was known) was the language in which the New Testament was written. The Greeks also spread their ideas about religion and philosophy.
Hellenism caused a cultural crisis for the Jewish people since anti-hellenistic Jews saw the Greek culture as a distortion of God’s ways. Hellenistic Jews, on the other hand, saw the Greek culture as a new way to understand the covenant. Hellenistic Jews, for example, began speaking Greek instead of Aramaic (which was similar to Hebrew) and even stopped circumcising their sons since this rite caused ostracism in the gymnasia. Anti-hellenistic Jews were appalled that Hellenistic Jews would forsake such sacred aspects of the covenant.
Alexander built the largest world empire to that time and the first of the western empires. In 323 BC, he died in Babylon from a fever at the age of 32 leaving no heirs behind. Alexander’s generals, known collectively as the Diadochoi (Greek, "the Successors"), divided up the empire among themselves. The two most important generals for Jewish history were Ptolemy and Seleucus. Ptolemy and his descendants ("the Ptolemies") ruled from Egypt, south of Palestine. Seleucus and his descendants ("Seleucids" or "Syrians") ended up ruling from Antioch of Syria, north of Palestine. At first, Palestine was under the rule of the Ptolemies from Egypt (301-198 BC) but then it was under the rule of the Seleucids from Antioch (198-164 BC). Under the Seleucids, the high priesthood in Jerusalem became corrupt. This position was bought, sold, and even appointed by these gentile rulers from Antioch (2 Macc. 3:1-4:50). During this time, many Jews lost confidence in the high priesthood.
In 175 BC, Antiochus 4 Epiphanes came to power in Antioch as the next Seleucid ruler. Antiochus called himself "Theos Epiphanes" (Greek, "god manifest") but his Jewish subjects mockingly reviled him as "epimanes" (Greek, "the madman"). Antiochus was intent on reviving hellenism. Antiochus enacted many policies to bring back the glory of the Greek way of life. His policies had severe effects on the Jewish way of life. Under Antiochus, the Jewish law was banned and circumcision was forbidden since this was seen as a mutilation of the body (which the Greeks revered). Sabbath observance was prohibited since the Greeks didn't recognize a day of rest and worship. Jews were forced to eat pork and other unclean foods since the Greeks did not distinguish between clean and unclean foods. The Jerusalem temple (which served somewhat as the national treasury) was plundered since Antiochus owed a huge debt to the Romans. An altar to Zeus (the chief Greek god) was erected in the Jerusalem temple and a pig (an unclean animal!) was sacrificed on it. Any Jews who didn't comply were to be executed (1 Macc. 1:10-64; 2 Macc. 5:1-7:42).
The
Maccabean Revolt (167-161 BC)
In the Judean village of Modein in 167 BC, an elderly priest named Mattathias was supposed to be the town representative in order to offer the necessary sacrifice to Zeus to show the town's compliance with the Hellenistic policies of Antiochus Epiphanes. Mattathias refused to do this. When another Jewish man stepped forward to try to appease the situation, Mattathias killed both him and the Seleucid officer in a fit of rage. Mattathias led his five sons and other anti-hellenistic Jews into the wilderness in rebellion (1 Macc. 2:1-48). Mattathias’s son, Judas the Maccabee (167-161 BC), led the rebellion which became known as the Maccabean Revolt. Judas and the Jewish rebels were successful against the Seleucids because they attacked by surprise under the cover of darkness, they were motivated by religious zeal, and they were consistently underestimated by the Seleucids (1 Macc. 3:1-9:22; 2 Macc. 8:1-15:39).
In December 164 BC, Judas retook the Jerusalem temple. He tore down the blasphemous altar to Zeus and built a new altar to Yahweh. After cleansing the temple, he instituted a new festival called the Festival of Dedication (Hebrew, Hanukkah) to commemorate the event (see 1 Macc. 4:36-61; 2 Macc. 10:1-9; Jn. 10:22-23). After Judas died in battle, his brother Jonathan took control of the movement (161-142 BC). Jonathan made progress for the revolt through diplomatic maneuvering more than battles. Jonathan appointed himself high priest even though he was not of the legitimate priestly line. This offended many Jews, including the Qumran group who consequently withdrew to the Judean desert near the Dead Sea. Jonathan eventually was killed when he got trapped by his own political maneuvering.
Simon (another son of Mattathias) took over in 142 BC. When he did so, the goal of the Maccabean Revolt had been achieved. The Jewish people had gained independence from the Seleucid rulers in Antioch. They now were appointing their own high priests, minting their own coins, and making their own policies. This was the first time that the people of Judah had been independent in their own land since before the Greeks, Persians, Babylonians, and Assyrians centuries earlier. The family dynasty of Mattathias, his sons, and their descendants are commonly called the "Hasmoneans" since an earlier ancestor was named "Hashmon."
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The Hasmonean Rulers and their Biblical Significance |
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Judas the Maccabee |
167-161 BC |
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Jonathan |
161-142 BC |
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Simon |
142-135 BC |
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John Hyrcanus 1 |
135-104 BC |
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Aristobulus 1 |
104-103 BC |
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Alexander Janneus |
103-76 BC |
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Alexandra Salome |
76-67 BC |
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Aristobulus 2 |
67-63 BC |
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History is filled with ironies and this is never more true than with the Hasmoneans. The Hasmonean dynasty began with a revolt against a hellenistic tyrant named Antiochus Epiphanes. In the end, the Hasmoneans themselves had become hellenistic tyrants. While the Hasmoneans had ruled the Jewish people independently for nearly eighty years, in other parts of the world the Romans were gradually expanding their empire westward around the Mediterranean Sea.
At the end of the Hasmonean dynasty, two brothers named Aristobulus 2 and Hyrcanus 2 fought for the high priesthood in Jerusalem. At first, Aristobulus 2 seized the high priesthood from his brother Hyrcanus 2 who had served in that role under their mother. At this point in 63 BC, the Romans were at the doorstep of Judea. The Roman general Pompey marched into Jerusalem to settle the dispute over the high priesthood. But once the Romans came, they did not leave. From 63 BC on, the Jewish people were under the domination of the Roman Empire. This meant that the Jews would now pay taxes to the Roman Empire, would have Roman troops stationed in their land, and would have their rulers appointed by Rome. The independence under the Hasmoneans was short-lived but it gave the Jewish people hope that some day they could regain control of their own land from the Romans and usher in a new golden age of Israel.
The Romans
and the Herods (63 BC - AD 66)
In 37 BC, the Roman Senate appointed Herod the Great to take control of Palestine. Herod the Great was only half-Jewish and the Jewish people did not like him or trust him. Herod often ruled with a brutal, heavy hand. Herod enhanced and fortified the land with many sizeable building projects. To encourage trade and travel, Herod built a new port city on the Mediterranean called Caesarea Maritima since the coast had no natural harbors. Caesarea Maritima, not Jerusalem, became the official residence for the Roman rulers in Judea.
By far, Herod the Great's most significant building project for the Jews was the renovation of the Jerusalem temple (see Jn. 2:19-20). Begun in 20 BC, renovations to the Temple continued for over eighty years. Herod expanded the hilltop on which the Temple stood with a massive platform constructed out of huge stones weighing tons each. This massive rectangular platform to the Temple can still be seen in Jerusalem today. The western side of this foundation is known today as the "wailing wall" and is considered the most sacred site in Judaism. Herod enhanced the Temple with gold and ornate features. The Jewish historian Josephus even declared, "He who has not seen Herod's temple has not seen a beautiful thing."
Towards the end of Herod the Great's life, he became increasingly suspicious of anyone who might be a threat to his power. Because of this, he ended up executing various military leaders and family members, even three of his own sons. Mark Antony one time joked that it would be better to be Herod's hus (Greek, "pig") than his huios (Greek, "son") since Jews wouldn't touch a pig but Herod had killed his own sons. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke mention that Jesus was born during his reign.
After the death of Herod the Great in 4 BC, the Romans divided the land up to his three surviving sons: Archaelaus, Antipas, and Philip. Archaelaus (4 BC-AD 6) ruled southern Palestine (Judea, Samaria, and Idumea). Because the people complained about his harsh rule and poor administration, he was banished to Gaul in AD 6. Herod Antipas (4 BC-AD 39) ruled Galilee and Perea in northern Palestine during the public ministry of Jesus. It was Herod Antipas who executed John the Baptist (see Mk. 6:14-29; Josephus Ant. 18.109-119). Herod Philip (4 BC-AD 37) ruled the northeast part of Palestine and has little significance in the New Testament.
After Archelaus was banished to Gaul in AD 6, Roman procurators were appointed to govern Judea. Their main job was to maintain peace and stability in that region of the empire. These procurators often did not understand (and rarely did they attempt to understand!) the Jewish people with their seemingly odd customs and rituals. Occasionally, the procurators governed by force with the use of Roman troops. The most famous of these first seven procurators is Pontius Pilate (AD 26-36) who condemned Jesus to crucifixion (see Lk. 3:1; 13:1; Mk. 15:1-47, Tacitus, Annals 15.44; Josephus, Ant. 18.3.1-4.2). After seven different procurators governed Judea, Herod Agrippa 1 (grandson of Herod the Great) ruled the entire land briefly from AD 41-44 (Acts 12:1-19). When Agrippa 1 died unexpectedly in AD 44 (Acts 12:20-23; Josephus, Ant. 19.8.2), the Romans appointed more procurators to govern the land.
Jewish
Revolts against Rome (AD 66-135)
Since the second set of procurators were more inept and increasingly showed more disdain for Jewish customs, the first Jewish revolt against Rome occurred in AD 66. The Jews thought that since Judas the Maccabee had been successful against the Seleucids, surely God would empower them now in their struggle against the pagan Romans. The Maccabean Revolt had been successful partially because the Seleucid dynasty was in decline. In AD 66, the Jews, however, revolted against the Roman Empire when it was at full strength. There was little chance for success.
The Jewish people organized themselves
militarily against the Romans, but the Roman General Vespasian retook control
of the land. First, he conquered all the northern cities of Palestine. Then, he
sent his son Titus to retake Jerusalem (while he went back to Rome to
become emperor). Titus surrounded Jerusalem with his troops and began a long
horrific siege. Titus arrived at the city at the worst possible time since
Jerusalem was flooded with thousands of pilgrims worshipping at Passover. Since
the people were trapped in the city, food became scarce and civil unrest
escalated. Anyone attempting to flee the city was crucified on the hillsides.
Finally, in AD 70, Titus and his troops tore down the city walls,
decimated the people, and destroyed the Temple (see Lk. 19:41-44, 21:20-24).
The Romans completely subjugated the land in AD 73 with the fall of the plateau
fortress of Masada.
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Early Roman Emperors and their Biblical Significance |
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Augustus |
27 BC-AD 14 |
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Tiberius |
AD 14-37 |
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Gaius Caligula |
AD 37-41 |
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Claudius |
AD 41-54 |
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Nero |
AD 54-68 |
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Galba |
AD 68-69 |
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Otho |
AD 69 |
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Vitelius |
AD 69 |
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Vespasian |
AD 69-79 |
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Titus |
AD 79-81 |
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Domitian |
AD 81-96 |
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Nerva |
AD 96-98 |
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Trajan |
AD 98-117 |
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Hadrian |
AD 117-138 |
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After the Temple was destroyed in AD 70, Rabbinic Judaism emerged which focused on the Jewish scriptures in the synagogue instead of the temple and the land. In AD 132, the Jewish people made one more attempt to revolt against the Romans. The Jews rallied around Simon bar Kochba as their military deliverer. Within three years the revolt was subdued. The Emperor Hadrian destroyed Jerusalem and rebuilt it as a Roman city including a temple to Jupiter where the temple of Yahweh had stood. The Jews were forced with the threat of execution from entering Jerusalem.
During the times of severe oppression under the Greeks and Romans, a new literary genre arose known as "apocalypses." Apocalypses flourished among the Jewish people roughly between 200 BC and AD 200. These writings encouraged the righteous to remain obedient to God despite being faced with persecution and martyrdom.
Apocalypses had many notable characteristics. Most Jewish apocalypses were written pseudonymously in the name of some revered character from Jewish history (such as Adam, Elijah, Baruch, or Ezra) who then retells Jewish history in the form of ex eventu prophecy ("prophecy after the fact"). This technique attempted to increase the credibility of the apocalypse because it would seem remarkably accurate as the prophecies supposedly foretold historical events. The apocalypse would then vaguely describe events that would actually be in the future. Usually, apocalypses divide history up into distinct epochs and eras to show history as being ordained by God. Apocalypses typically climax when a divine messenger or agent sent from heaven dramatically breaks into history, conquers the evil oppressor, and establishes God's reign on earth.
In apocalypses, the author typically took a journey through the cosmos or had visions of the future. These journeys and visions used extensive symbolism to graphically represent various political groups and leaders. Usually the crisis was portrayed in distinct dualistic themes contrasting good versus evil, the righteous versus the wicked, God versus Satan, and angels versus demons. Military aggression, social unrest, geological upheavals, and cosmic disturbances dominate the description of earth in apocalypses. In the heavens, a cosmic battle was often portrayed in which angels fought against demons. In the end, good always triumphed over evil because apocalypses always describe God climatically and decisively breaking into history to end this present, evil world and to establish a new world.
Some passages of the Old Testament prophetic books such as Isaiah 24-27, Ezekiel 38-39, Joel 2, and Zechariah 9-14 are described as being "proto-apocalyptic" since they begin to contain some of the characteristics that eventually developed into full-blown Jewish apocalypses. The book of Daniel is the only true apocalypse in the Old Testament, while the book of Revelation is an apocalypse in the New Testament. Numerous other apocalypses circulated outside the canon of scripture among Jews (e.g., 1 Enoch, 2 Enoch, Jubilees, Apocalypses of Abraham, of Baruch, and of Elijah) and Christians (e.g., Apocalypse of Peter, Apocalypse of Paul, and the Shepherd of Hermas). The biblical apocalypses of Daniel and Revelation have most of the characateristics of other Jewish apocalypses, except each has its own peculiarities. Daniel, for example, is the only apocalypse known to exist in Hebrew/Aramaic which explains why it is the only apocalypse in the Hebrew Bible. Revelation, on the other hand, was certainly not written pseudonymously as ex eventu prophecy since it is written as a letter from a church leader named John to seven churches in Asia Minor.
The narrative setting of the book of Daniel is in Babylon during the Exile (587-539 BC) as Daniel and his three Jewish friends uphold righteous standards despite persecution. The book of Daniel, however, made its impact during the times of Antiochus 4 Epiphanes (160s BC) when Jewish readers would be encouraged to oppose him just as Daniel and his Jewish friends had opposed the Babylonians.
The date of the composition of the book of Daniel is the subject of much debate since it is difficult to determine when its text had reached a final form. The Hebrew version of Daniel contains an odd mixture of Hebrew (1:1-2:4a; 8:1-12:13) and Aramaic (2:4b-7:28) that doesn't even coincide with the distinct division between narratives (1:1-6:28) and visions (7:1-12:13) in the book. The Greek version of the book has three additional episodes known in the Apocrypha as The Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Jews (3:24-90), Susanna (13:1-64), and Bel and the Dragon (14:1-42). The inclusion of Daniel in the Kethuvim of the Hebrew Bible (between Esther and Ezra-Nehemiah) points towards its composition in a time after the Nevi'im had become a closed collection of books.
Basically, the Hebrew-Aramaic version of the book of Daniel divides into two halves, six narratives in chapters 1-6 and four apocalyptic visions in chapters 7-12. In terms of genre, each of the first six chapters functions virtually as a short story to itself. The chapters do not build progressively in plot but are independent episodes. Each of the episodes taught a truth (or "moral of the story") that was especially important during the times of the Maccabees in the 160s BC as the anti-hellenistic Jews opposed the hellenistic policies of Antiochus Epiphanes.
(1) In the first episode (Dan. 1:1-21), Daniel and his three friends refuse to eat the Babylonian food that had been sacrificed to pagan deities. Daniel and his three friends end up prospering as the wisest youths in the empire due to their obedience to the covenant. This episode would have encouraged Jews to resist Antiochus Epiphanes' attempt to force them to eat pork and other unclean foods (see 1 Macc. 1:62-63).
(2) In the second episode (Dan. 2:1-49), Daniel interprets a dream of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar. In the dream, a symbolic statue is broken by a special stone. The statue was composed of gold, silver, bronze, iron, and an iron-clay mixture which represented the successive dynasties of the Babylonians, Medes, Persians, Greeks, and Ptolemies-Seleucids, respectively. The stone "uncut with human hands" that crushed the statue represented God's kingdom superceding all these earthly empires (possibly representing the Maccabees).
(3) In the third episode (Dan. 3:1-30), three Jewish youths (Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego) refuse to worship a pagan image and are thrown into a fiery furnace. Nevertheless, they miraculously survive the fire while walking around in it with a fourth individual described as a "son of the gods" (in the words of the Babylonians in 3:25). This episode would have encouraged the Jews to refuse to worship Zeus and other Greek gods even though Antioch Epiphanes executed Jews for such non-compliance. The episode would also encourage the Jews that God would protect them from any harm with which they might be threatened.
(4) In the fourth episode (Dan. 4:1-37), Daniel interprets another dream of Nebuchadnezzar and then the great Babylonian king inexplicably begins thinking he was an animal. This episode would encourage the Jews in the 160s BC that seemingly unconquerable rulers like Nebuchadnezzar or Antiochus Epiphanes would eventually meet their demise.
(5) In the fifth episode (Dan. 5:1-31), King Belshazzar [sic] of Babylon sacrilegiously partied with the Jewish sacred vessels from the temple of Yahweh in Jerusalem. Suddenly, a divine hand appears and writes a four-word phrase on the wall. Daniel interprets the phrase to mean that God was about to judge and divide the Babylonian empire. This episode would encourage the Jews in the 160s BC that rulers such as Belshazzar and Antiochus Epiphanes who had desecrated the sacred things of Yahweh would be judged and condemned.
(6) In the sixth episode (Dan. 6:1-28), the king of Babylon decrees that no one should pray to anyone (divine or human) other than the king. Daniel blatantly disobeys this order by continuing to pray outside three times daily to the Lord. Daniel was sentenced to the lion's den for such disobedience. The Lord miraculously spared Daniel since the lions did not bother him. This episode would encourage the Jews in the 160s BC that God would rescue the righteous despite the death threats from Antiochus Epiphanes.
The second half of the book of Daniel is a collection of four apocalyptic visions. The first vision ("The Vision of the Four Beasts" in 7:1-28) symbolically describes a succession of four kingdoms (Babylonians, Medes, Persians, and Greeks-Seleucids) as four bizarre animals. The second vision ("The Vision of the Ram and the Male-Goat" in 8:1-27) symbolically describes Alexander and the Greeks to the time of Antiochus Epiphanes. The third vision ("The Prophecy of the Seventy Weeks" in 9:1-27) describes the subjugation of Jerusalem to gentiles for 490 years. The fourth vision (10:1-12:13) is the "Vision of the Last Days."
The books of the Apocrypha are Jewish books that were written in Greek (not Hebrew or Aramaic). These books were included in the Septuagint but were never a part of the Hebrew Bible. The books of the Apocrypha are written in a wide variety of genres. There are short stories (Tobit, Judith), devotional literature (three additions to Daniel, Prayer of Manasseh, Psalm 151), apocalyptic literature (2 Esdras), wisdom literature (Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus), letters (Baruch, Epistle of Jeremiah), and narratives (1, 2, 3, and 4 Maccabees—all four from different authors and of varying historical value). Noticeably absent is the prophetic genre. Most Old Testament specialists think that the dynamic, creative work of the Hebrew prophets came to an end with the emergence of the scribes under Ezra in the 400s. The Apocrypha included letters which was a new genre for Jewish religious writings, a genre not found in the Hebrew Bible. This becomes a major genre in the New Testament.
Different religious groups have come to different conclusions about the authority and usefulness of the Apocrypha. No consensus exists as to which books comprise the Apocrypha since the various versions of the Septuagint included different books. New Testament writers made allusions to the Apocrypha but no quotations (e.g., Rom. 1:20-29 to the Wisdom of Solomon; Heb. 11:35-40 to 2 Maccabees). Early Christian writers who used the Septuagint as their scriptures cite the Apocrypha in a way equal to the books of the Hebrew Bible. Jewish rabbis after the Academy of Jamnia (ca. AD 90) considered the Apocrypha beneficially but not on par with the Torah, Nevi'im, and Kethuvim since these books were written in Greek (not Hebrew) and came from a later time period. The Catholic Church recognizes the Apocrypha as "deuterocanonical" (i.e., scripture canonized later) since it is part of the Latin Vulgate. Orthodox Churches recognize the Apocrypha as authoritative scripture since it is in the Greek Bible (i.e., Septuagint). Orthodox churches such as the Russian and Greek churches do not agree with each other or the Catholic Church about which books comprise the Apocrypha. Reformers and Protestants considered the Apocrypha beneficial but not authoritative for doctrine since it was not part of the Hebrew Bible.
Tobit is a short story about a pious Jew who devoted himself loyally to the Lord through alms, prayers, tithes, and observance of the Law. Nevertheless, he suffered from blindness, humiliation, and poverty. In the end he was rewarded for his dedication. The purpose of the book was to counteract idolatrous worship.
Judith is a short story about a beautiful Jewish woman whose town was besieged by the Assyrians. She killed their leader and saved the Jews.
Additions to Esther are six additional passages in the Greek version of the book of Esther. The material attempts to fill the shortcomings of the Hebrew/Aramaic version of the book by explicitly mentioning God participation in the drama as well as Esther’s abhorrence at being married to a Gentile king.
Wisdom of Solomon is a synthesis of Hebrew wisdom and Greek philosophy that describes immortality as the reward of wisdom, the origin and value of wisdom, and the wisdom of Israel’s God.
Ecclesiasticus (or Wisdom of Jesus Ben Sirach) is a loose collection of wise sayings, moral essays, hymns to wisdom, practical advice, instructions in proper behavior, private meditations, and extended reflections on the human condition. It is the longest and most popular work among the Apocrypha.
Baruch is a book attributed to the loyal scribe of Jeremiah that is a mixture of prophecy and wisdom for Jews during the Babylonian Exile. Much of the book is a paraphrase of Daniel 9, Job 28, and Isaiah 40-66.
The Letter of Jeremiah is a 76-verse letter purported to be by the prophet Jeremiah (see Jer. 29:1-23). The letter speaks strongly against idolatrous worship.
Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Jews is an addition in the Greek version of Daniel chapter 3 which records the prayer of Abednego as well as that the song that the 3 Jewish youths sang in the fire.
Susanna is a short story in which a virtuous Jewish woman is vindicated from the false accusations of two villains. It is chapter 13 of the Greek version of Daniel.
Bel and the Dragon is a short story in which Daniel exposes the fraud of the priests of Bel, proves the vulnerability of the so-called dragon (or snake), and survives a second imprisonment with the lions. It is chapter 14 of the Greek version of Daniel.
First Maccabees is a historical account of the Jewish struggle for independence from the Seleucid rulers. This work covers the times of Antiochus Epiphanes, Mattathias, Judas the Maccabee, Jonathan, and Simon.
Second Maccabees is an embellished, legendary account of the Maccabean revolt. This is not a sequel to 1 Maccabees, but overlaps 1 Maccabees 1-8.
The Prayer of Manasseh and 1-2 Esdras are included as an appendix in Catholic Bibles. Russian Orthodox Bibles include 1-2 Esdras, 3 Maccabees, and Psalm 151 as part of the Apocrypha. Greek Orthodox Bibles include 1 Esdras, Prayer of Manasseh, 3 Maccabees, and Psalm 151 with 4 Maccabees in an appendix.
The term "pseudepigrapha" refers to Jewish books written in Greek that were pseudonymously attributed to venerable Jewish heroes. These works were produced during the Greek and Roman periods of Jewish history (ca. 200 BC-AD 200) and were not a part of the Hebrew or Greek Bibles (whether Jewish or Christian) even though some of these books were widely circulated and known. The pseudepigrapha included such works as 1 Enoch, Assumption of Moses, Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, and numerous apocalypses. The New Testament contains some references to pseudepigrapha (see 2 Tim. 3:8; Heb. 11:37; Jude 14-15).
In the 1940s, the Dead Sea Scrolls began to be discovered in caves in the hillsides near an ancient settlement known as Qumran. Besides including the oldest existing manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible, the Dead Sea Scrolls also contain documents of the Qumran community which existed between the 150s BC and the AD 70s. Even though the Qumran community was a splinter group from mainstream Judaism, the Dead Sea Scrolls provide important insights to Jewish thought and theology during the times of John the Baptist, Jesus, and the early Church.
Josephus was a Jewish historian who records the history of the Jewish people in his books, The Jewish War and Jewish Antiquities, in the AD 90s. Originally Josephus was a Pharisee and a military leader during the Jewish revolt against Rome (AD 66-73), but ultimately he sided with the Romans and tried to use diplomacy to get the Jews to end the revolt. His massive historical works are the most significant sources for understanding the historical and political backgrounds to the New Testament.
The Jewish scribes in Egypt translated the Hebrew Bible into the Greek language in 200s BC. The Septuagint (LXX) was extremely significant because it became the "Bible" for Greek-speaking Jews (and therefore most early Christians) and it included additional Jewish works known only in Greek (not Hebrew). The Septuagint was the single greatest influence on the wording and nuances of the Greek language used by the New Testament writers.
After the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in AD 70, rabbinic Judaism emerged which focused on the Jewish scriptures instead of the land, the Temple, or sacrifices. Rabbinic writings recorded the study, interpretation, and teachings of the Jewish faith by the rabbis. The rabbinic movement emerged out of the Pharisees. For several centuries, this teaching was passed down orally from rabbi to rabbi. Eventually it became codified around AD 200 into the Mishnah (Hebrew, "repetition"). The Mishnah along with commentaries on it (known as the "Gemara") were combined to form the Talmud (Hebrew, "learning") around AD 500. The Mishnah and Talmud aid New Testament studies by shedding light on Judaism of the first few centuries of the common era.
Many developments took place in Jewish theology between the times of Ezra in the 400s BC and Jesus around AD 30. Three developments become especially important with the emergence of early Christianity.
First, the expectation of a Jewish messiah (Hebrew, "anointed one") greatly developed during the times between Ezra and Jesus, especially when the Jewish people were subjugated to Greeks or Romans. Back in the times of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, the people of Judah had begun to hope for a great king to rule them. The term "messiah" was never used in the Latter Prophet books for this individual (see Isa. 45:1), but many passages such as Isaiah 9:1-7; 11:1-9; Micah 5:1-6 describe this king as the ideal ruler.
Jewish apocalypses typically described a deliverer sent from heaven who breaks into history to render judgment and to bring this present world to an end. Even though the term "messiah" (or Greek, "christ") was not necessary used, the deliverer was considered a messiah figure. The book of Daniel describes a deliverer called a "son of man" in such terms:
Due to the promises that David's dynasty would rule forever (see 2 Samuel 7:13-16) and the success of the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid rulers from Antioch, many Jewish people in the times of Jesus hoped for a political "messiah" who would deliver the Jewish people from the Romans. Other Jewish people hoped for a priestly messiah to reestablish what they considered to be the legitimate priestly line.
Second, the concept of angels and demons developed greatly during the times between Ezra and Jesus. The Hebrew Bible occasionally described angels as messengers for God and as part of the divine council in the heavens, but it never mentioned demons. Sometimes in the Old Testament, an evil spirit was sent from the Lord (see Jdgs 9:23; 1 Sam 16:14-23) or an “advesary” (Hebrew, ha-satan) challenged the Lord (see Job 1-2; Zechariah 3:1-2), but there isn’t mention of a demonic realm headed by Satan. In the times between the testaments, Jewish apocalyptic writers began to describe angels and demons in a cosmic struggle behind the military and political struggles on earth. Armies and hierarchies of angels and demons empowered the righteous and wicked, respectively, in their struggles on earth. In the Apocrypha, for example, the book of Tobit describes the influences of demons and archangels. Thus, when John the Baptist and Jesus hit the scene, many Jews (such as the Pharisees) believed that angels and demons influenced the affairs of life, while other Jews (such as the Sadducees) did not believe that such spirits existed (see Acts 23:8).
Third, the concept of resurrection and judgment after death developed greatly during the times between Ezra and Jesus. The Hebrew Bible had a shadowy concept of what happened to a person after death. According to the Hebrew Bible, people died and became "shades" (Hebrew, rephaim) in an underworld called sheol. Sheol was neither a place of reward or judgment nor was it described with much detail. Basically, the Hebrew Bible described God rewarding and judging people within this lifetime, not after death (see the book of Job, for example).
When the Jewish people were oppressed by gentile rulers such as Antiochus Epiphanes, Jewish apocalyptic writers began to describe God rewarding the righteous by resurrecting them to everlasting life and judging the wicked by condemning them to everlasting punishment. This concept became important during times of persecution and martyrdom since otherwise the righteous had no hope of reward for obeying the covenant within this lifetime. The clearest passage in the Old Testament for resurrection and judgment is found in the apocalyptic visions in Daniel:
Thus, when John the Baptist and Jesus hit the scene, many Jews (such as the Pharisees) believed in resurrection and judgment after death while other Jews (such as the Sadducees) did not (see Mark 12:18; Acts 23:8).
Social and Political Developments
In the times between Ezra in the 400s BC and Jesus around AD 30, many social and political groups emerged that influenced the New Testament world.
Two important political parties or sects were the Pharisees and the Sadducees. These two groups were theological and political rivals. The Pharisees were common people who adhered rigidly to the law of Moses and its oral interpretation. According to Josephus, there may have been as many as 6000 of them in Palestine. The Sadducees, on the other hand, were wealthy educated aristocrats who mostly lived in big cities such as Jerusalem.
The Pharisees and Sadducees had many sharp distinctions in belief. The Pharisees believed in resurrection of the righteous and judgment for the wicked after death, but the Sadducees did not. The Pharisees believed that angels and demons existed, but the Sadducees did not. The Pharisees considered the Torah, the Prophets, and the interpretation of the Law passed down orally by the scribes to be authoritative. The Sadducees only accepted the Torah as scripture. Based on these comparisons, Jesus would have agreed far more with the positions of the Pharisees than the Sadducees. But according to the Gospels, the Pharisees were the primary antagonists against Jesus, mostly because he rejected the interpretation of the scribes (see Matthew 7:28-29).
Josephus described the Essenes as a third political party in Palestine. The Essenes were a priestly group who disagreed with the Jerusalem priests. A group of Essenes withdrew to the Judean desert near the Dead Sea and lived as an independent community called Qumran. They lived ascetic, communal lives and focused on the copying of the Jewish scriptures. They are responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Essenes are never mentioned in the New Testament, although the Qumran writings have many similarities in thought with parts of the New Testament.
The Zealots were a loosely organized Jewish political group that worked aggressively and militantly against the Romans in the land (see Acts 5:36-37). At times, they even used assassinations to make their point (see Acts 21:38). The Zealots were the leaders in the Jewish revolt against Rome (AD 66-73). According to the Gospels, one of Jesus' twelve disciples was a zealot (Luke 6:15). Many first-century Jews would have expected Jesus to be a zealot and to challenge Pontius Pilate.
The Samaritans lived in the area between Galilee (in the north) and Judea (in the south). They emerged out of the remnants of the Northern Kingdom of Israel which had suffered from deportations after the fall of Samaria in 721 BC. In the 400s BC, the Jews and Samaritans became bitter enemies in the land as seen in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. The Jews hated the Samaritans and treated them with great disdain. The inclusion of Samaritans into early Christianity would have been an important step beyond Judaism (see Lk. 9:52-56; 10:25-37; 17:11-19; Jn. 4:1-42; 8:48; Acts 1:8; 8:4-25).
The Samaritans and Jews had many sharp disagreements. The Jews believed that the Samaritans originated from foreigners transplanted into the land in 700s BC (see 2 Kgs. 17:29-40) while the Samaritans believed that they were the descendants of the ten tribes of Israel. The Jews believed that God could only be worshiped in Jerusalem at the Temple while the Samaritans believed God should be worshiped at Mount Gerizim (see John 4:20-24). The Samaritans had built a temple there but it was destroyed by the Hasmonean ruler John Hyrcanus 1 around 135 BC. The Samaritans had their own version of the Torah known as the Samaritan Pentateuch and they did not accept the books of the Hebrew prophets or writings.
The Jewish people considered non-Jewish people to be gentiles (from the Latin, gens, gentis which means "nations"). The Jewish people despised the gentiles with animosity as religious pagans since they worshipped gods and goddesses other than Yahweh. Jewish people considered the gentiles to have no sexual or moral restraints. The inclusion of gentiles into the early church, especially by Paul, caused Christianity to become a world religion instead of merely being a sect within Judaism.
Since the Roman government collected taxes from the Jewish people, the Romans employed some Jews as tax-collectors. By employing indigenous people, the Romans had an easier time collecting taxes for Rome. The Jewish people despised the Roman governor and troops in their land and they certainly didn't want to use their own money to support these forces. The Jewish people, therefore, considered these tax-collectors to be traitors against their own people since they were working for gentiles and were responsible for Jewish money leaving the land in the hands of gentiles. Jesus' openness towards tax-collectors (see Mk. 2:13-17; Lk. 18:9-14; 19:1-10) would have been radical in his times.
Key
Terms and Concepts for Review:
Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible [NRSV], copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.
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