Unit 3 of CST100 surveys the books known as the Former Prophets in the Hebrew Bible. The main sections for Unit 3 are:
The recommending readings from the Bible for this unit of material are the following chapters: Deuteronomy 29-30; Joshua 5-6, 10; Judges 3-4; 1 Samuel 15, 18; 2 Samuel chapter 11; 1 Kings 3-4, 18; 2 Kings 17, 22-25
The second major section of the Hebrew Bible is the Nevi’im ("Prophets"). The prophetic books are divided into two sections:
In the Hebrew Bible, the book of Ruth was not included among the Former Prophets between Judges and Samuel, but in the third section of the Hebrew Bible, the Kethuvim ("Writings"). Even though the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings are predominantly narratives, the Hebrew people considered these books the opening section of the Nevi'im because numerous prophets appear throughout the narratives to guide and interpret the history of the kingdoms.
Historical Narratives of the Hebrew Bible
The historical narratives of the Torah (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy) record the history of the Israelites through the ancestors and as a nation under the leadership of Moses to the edge of Canaan. The historical narratives of the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings) continue the story by recording the history of the Israelites in the land of Canaan as a tribal confederacy and a kingdom. The transitional works to these narrative sequences are the books of Deuteronomy and Joshua. The book of Joshua is an important continuation beyond the Torah because it's in this book that the promises made to Abraham and his descendants reach fulfillment when the Israelites take the land of Canaan. The book of Deuteronomy is an important book introducing the Former Prophets because Deuteronomy emphasizes faithfulness to the covenant, a message that serves as the cohesive theme throughout Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings (often called the "Deuteronomistic History").
An additional series of historical narratives known as the "History of the Chronicler" (Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah) is found in the Kethuvim ("Writings") of the Hebrew Bible. These narratives have many parallels to the narratives of the Torah and Former Prophets. The History of the Chronicler, however, is focused on priestly concerns such as sacrifices, the Temple, and Jewish rituals. The History of the Chronicler was compiled much later than the Former Prophets and includes narratives about Judah’s history during and after the Babylonian Exile (587-539 BC).
Scholars often designate the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings as the "Deuteronomistic History" since the long historical narrative reflects the emphasis on the covenant found in Deuteronomy. This lengthy Deuteronomistic History covers roughly seven hundred years of Israel’s history from their entrance into the land of Canaan (1200s BC) in the opening chapters of Joshua until the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians (587 BC) in the last chapters of 2 Kings.
The
Main Events in the Deuteronomistic History
(1) The Israelite tribes begin their conquest of Canaan and they disburse the land to the various Israelite tribes (Joshua).
(2) The Israelite tribes function as a loose confederacy as they battle with various Canaanite city-states (Judges).
(3) The twelve tribes unite and establish the monarchy, which climaxes in the reigns of David and Solomon (1-2 Samuel, 1 Kings).
(4) The northern ten tribes split off and become the Northern Kingdom of Israel which is separate from the Southern Kingdom of Judah (1 Kings).
(5) In 721 BC, the Northern Kingdom of Israel is conquered by the Assyrians, Samaria is destroyed, and many of the people are deported (2 Kings).
(6) In 621 BC, the worship of Yahweh reaches a climax in the Southern Kingdom of Judah due to the religious reforms of King Josiah (2 Kings).
(7) In 587 BC, the Southern Kingdom of Judah is conquered by the Babylonians, Jerusalem and the Temple are destroyed, and many of the people are deported to Babylon beginning the Babylonian Exile (2 Kings 24-25).
The
Composition of the Deuteronomistic History
When, how, and by whom the Deuteronomistic History was written, edited, and compiled is unclear. An original edition of the narratives may have been produced during Josiah’s religious reforms in 621 BC (2 Kings 22-23). Subsequent material (2 Kings 24-25) may have been added after the fall of Jerusalem in 587 BC.
The exact identity of the author/compiler is unknown. Some have tried to attribute the books to Jeremiah or Baruch due to the emphasis on the covenant, but no tangible evidence exists for such a connection. The anonymous author is often simply called the "Deuteronomist." This author or compiler, whoever the individual was, certainly consulted several sources available in that time which no longer exist today:
The Book of Jashar may have been a collection of ancient songs or poems celebrating Israel's victories in battle. The Book of the Acts of Solomon probably would have been a somewhat comprehensive account of the reign of Solomon. Even though some English versions of the Bible translate these last two works as the "Chronicles" of Israel and Judah (instead of "Annals"), these should not be confused with the books of 1-2 Chronicles which were written after 1-2 Kings were written. These "Annals" were a more comprehensive treatment of Israel's history that would have included history of such things as battles, policies, and kingdom boundaries not mentioned in 1-2 Kings.
Regardless of the exact identity of the author, the author was not attempting to record a comprehensive history of Israel and Judah. Instead, the author makes an intentional theological statement regarding faithfulness to the covenant in the way that Israelite history is told. The author selectively mentions only episodes in Israelite history that show the rise and fall of the kingdoms to be correlated to obedience to the covenant.
The
Theological Message in the Deuteronomistic History
The author had a simple theological message: obedience to the covenant results in national prosperity and disobedience to the covenant results in national calamity. The Israelites obeyed the covenant when they worshipped only Yahweh as their God and kept the commandments as given in the Torah. The Israelites broke the covenant when they worshipped other gods and disregarded the commandments in the Torah. National prosperity was seen in such things as good crops, large families, military victories, and national independence (see Deut. 28:1-14). National calamity was seen in such things as drought, famine, epidemics, and defeat in battle (see Deut. 28:15-46). At this point in Israelite history, Yahweh's blessings and judgments would have been understood within this lifetime, not in terms of afterlife.
Basically, the author selectively compiled the narratives of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings by emphasizing the episodes in the history of Israel and Judah that taught obedience to the covenant. The author devotes little space to kings who were considered disobedient to the covenant and seemed to enjoy national prosperity. Omri, for example, was one of Israel's most powerful kings, yet the text of 1 Kings summarizes his reign in a mere fourteen verses (1 Kgs. 16:15-28) because he was not a good example of how disobedience to the covenant resulted in national calamity. In the same way, Jeroboam 2 who reigned for forty years (ca. 786-746 BC) as one of Israel's most prosperous kings is described in only seven verses (2 Kings 14:23-29) because he too enjoyed national prosperity although being disobedient to the covenant.
Ultimately, this theme of covenant obedience resulting in national prosperity and covenant disobedience resulting in national calamity becomes very important at the end of the Deuteronomistic History. In 2 Kings 17:1-6, the Northern Kingdom of Israel is decimated by the Assyrians (721 BC). Yahweh is not considered defeated as if Yahweh was weaker than the national gods of Assyria. Instead, the author clearly attributes this massive national calamity to Israel's repeated disobedience to the covenant (see 2 Kings 17:7-18). In the same way, the Southern Kingdom of Judah is decimated by the Babylonians in 587 BC (see 2 Kings 24-25). Jerusalem was ransacked, the Temple of Yahweh destroyed, and many of the people deported to Babylon. Again, Yahweh was not considered defeated as if Yahweh was weaker than the national gods of Babylon. Instead, the author clearly attributes this devastation to disobedience to the covenant (2 Kgs. 23:26-27; 24:3-4), mostly under Manasseh.
The books of Joshua and Judges describe the period of time from the death of Moses to the rise of the monarchy when the tribes come under the leadership of one king. These two books describe the earliest stories of the tribes gaining and possessing the land of Canaan. Historians and archaeologists today debate the manner in which Israel gained a stronghold in the land of Canaan. Some theorize that it was mostly due to conquest. This conquest theory asserts that Israel took the land through wide-sweeping military success such as is described in Joshua 10:40-42; 11:16-20. Others theorize that Israel's occupation of the land was due more to gradual infiltration and migration. This infiltration theory asserts that Israel became an established, sedentary people in the land by gradually and peacefully migrating as semi-nomads in search of new pastures. The book of Genesis describes the Hebrew ancestors in this way and the books of Joshua and Judges repeatedly mention that many Canaanite strongholds remained unconquered in the land (Jdg. 1:19-35; Josh. 13:13; 15:63; 17:12).
After the death of Moses (Deut. 34:1-12), Joshua emerges as the new leader of the Israelites. Joshua's pattern of leadership (Josh. 1:1-5:12) has many echoes to that of Moses. The book of Joshua describes the Israelite tribes taking the land through the wide-sweeping, military invasion. According to the book of Joshua, nothing could thwart the Israelites conquest of the land other than their own disobedience. The accounts in Joshua emphasize religious ritual and divine intervention. The Israelites are expected to be obedient to instructions that seem odd by modern military standards. For example, with the battle of Jericho alone, the Israelites are expected to circumcise their uncircumcised warriors before the battle (Josh. 5:2-9), march quietly around the city for seven days (Josh. 6:1-14), and then utterly destroy everything in the city (Josh. 6:15-27). But such obedience was considered to have led to Yahweh's direct intervention in their battles. At Jericho, for example, the walls of the city miraculously fall down (Josh. 6:12-21) and against the Amorites, the Israelites win due to a providential hailstorm (Josh. 10:6-11) and an extra-long day (Josh. 10:12-14). These and other incidents are explicitly credited to Yahweh's intervention into Israel's battles.
According to the opening chapters of Joshua, the Israelites completely conquered the land in three major campaigns. First, the Israelites attacked the central part of Canaan (6:1-8:29). At Jericho, the Israelites march around the city for seven days and the walls fall down (Josh. 6:1-27). Israel takes the city of Ai (8:1-29) after an initial defeat due to Achan’s disobedience (7:1-26). The narratives about Jericho and Ai are the most detailed accounts of military conquests in the book of Joshua because these stories exemplify the consequences of obedience and disobedience.
Two individuals (Rahab and Achan) are highlighted in the narratives about Jericho due to their obedience and disobedience, respectively. Rahab is a prostitute in the Canaanite city of Jericho, but she and her family are spared during the city's destruction because she fears the God of Israel and had hidden two Israelite spies from the king of Jericho (Josh 2:1-14). Achan, on the other hand, was an Israelite warrior who broke the ban by hiding loot from Jericho in his tent. The Israelite defeat at Ai was attributed to his disobedience and so he and his family were executed (7:1-26). Together, Rahab and Achan illustrate the contrasting results of obedience and disobedience.
Second, the Israelites attacked the southern part of Canaan (Josh. 10:1-43). The Israelites conquer a coalition of five Amorite kings (10:1-27) and subsequently three of their cities (10:28-43). Against the Amorites, the Lord threw down huge hailstones from heaven (10:1-11) and caused the sun to stand still so Joshua had time to win a battle (Josh 10:12-14). Third, the Israelites attacked the northern part of Canaan (Josh. 11:1-15). The Israelites defeat an alliance of northern kings led by the king of Hazor. The Israelite victories are summarized in Josh. 12:1-24. Joshua then disburses the land to the various tribes (Josh. 13:1-22:34). He gives a farewell address (23:1-16) and the covenant is renewed at Shechem (24:1-28). The expectation of utter allegiance to the covenant is seen in Joshua 24:14-15:
The judges (Hebrew, shophetim) were not so much national nor judicial officials as they were charismatic, tribal, military leaders who arose sporadically to deliver an Israelite tribe from being oppressed by a Canaanite city-state. In Judges, the Israelites function as a loose confederacy. There is no capital city or even one main sacred site at which they worship. Instead, the tribes function virtually as independent entities, not as a centralized nation. The tribes make no unified effort to possess the land or to conquer the numerous Canaanite strongholds (Jdg. 1:19-35).
The book of Judges does not seem to record a strict chronological sequence of events; instead, the rule of the judges as tribal warriors seems to have overlapped. It's very likely that other judges or warriors played an important role for the Israelites during this time which are never mentioned in the book of Judges. The mention of twelve judges and their tribal affiliations seems to indicate representation of all twelve tribes in the early Israelite conquests.
The author of Judges primarily focuses on a judge's ability to deliver Israel from some outside oppressor. This judge then in turn ushers in a time of tribal prosperity. Because of this, a cycle of events recurs throughout the book of Judges: (1) idolatry; (2) oppression; (3) cries for help; and (4) deliverance. This cycle emphasizes the overarching theological message of the entire Deuteronomistic History that disobedience results in calamity and obedience in prosperity. But as soon as the people are delivered by the hand of a judge they quickly return to idolatry which begins the whole cycle again. Five verses of Judges describing the judge Othniel exemplify this cycle:
The exploits of some judges, such as Shamgar, Tola, Jair, Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon, are briefly described in a mere verse or two. Other judges, such as Ehud, Deborah, Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson, are some of the more colorful characters in the Old Testament narratives. The judges often have character flaws that make them less than exemplary. Gideon repeatedly questions the Lord's plans (Jdg. 6:1-8:35). Jephthah ends up sacrificing his own daughter due to a rash vow that he made (Jdg. 10:6-12:7). Samson disregards any kind of seriousness to his religious commitments (Jdg. 13:1-16:31). Nevertheless, these judges served important roles in the history of ancient Israel because they delivered the tribes from an oppressor, even if they did it in ways that were not always commendable.
Modern readers are often shocked by the brutal descriptions in Judges. Ehud stabs the obese king Eglon of Moab so forcefully that his knife gets stuck (Jdg. 3:12-30). Jael drives a tent peg through Sisera's head while he slept (Jdg. 4:17-24). Jephthah sacrifices his own daughter (Jdg. 10:6-12:7). The book of Judges simply narrates the brutal manner in which the judges delivered the Israelite tribes from their oppressors.
After Samson's story is told, the remainder of the book of Judges (17:1-21:25) records the repeated failures and frustrations of the Israelite tribes. The book of Judges ends on a somber note. The last verse (21:25) of Judges is a sober call for a centralized government and worship system that anticipates the monarchy, especially the dynasty of David and the establishment of Jerusalem and the Temple as the central location for worship.
Theology Associated with the Tribal Confederacy (Joshua
and Judges)
The theology and religious climate of the tribal confederacy presents an interesting situation for the history of Israel. First, the books of Judges, Samuel, and Kings (until Josiah in 2 Kgs. 22:8) rarely mention Moses or any kind of book of the Law, even though the worship of Yahweh is based on the covenant and the exodus from Egypt. In the books of Joshua and Judges, the tribes of Israel have no standardized or centralized worship practices. The tribes used numerous shrines and sacred sites throughout the land including Gilgal, Bethel, Mizpah, Ramah, Shiloh, and Shechem. The tribes also were familiar with foreign worship practices and sometimes incorporated these into their worship of Yahweh.
Second, fertility was a major religious concern for the Israelites and their neighbors. One's success in life was based on the ability of one's wives, crops, and livestock to be fertile. The tribes attributed fertility (and thus, also life and prosperity) to divine sources, whether Yahweh or Baal. Baal was a storm god and fertility god for the Canaanites. Yahweh, on the other hand, was considered the master of life and history in a non-cyclical fashion (i.e., not related to the changing of the seasons as in ancient mythology). Yahweh gave life and prosperity in terms of children, crops, and livestock. Yahweh, however, was considered holy (or separate or different) and was never described sexually regarding fertility as the gods and goddesses of Israel's neighbors often were.
Third, the tribes understood Yahweh militarily as an unseen Warrior fighting for the Israelites in their battles. The Israelites often won their battles through divine intervention. These battles were not merely national conflicts but religious wars in which the reputation of the gods of each nation was at stake. When Israel won a battle, it was thought that Yahweh had triumphed over the gods and goddesses of the defeated nation.
The tribes often practiced "holy war" (Hebrew, cherem) in their battles against other nations. In "holy war," all the defeated people (including women and children) would be killed and all their possessions utterly destroyed. This was done as a religious dimension of their war since the destruction was seen as an offering to Yahweh for giving victory (Exod. 17:8-15; Num. 21:1-3; Josh. 6:1-8:29; 11:20; 1 Sam. 15:1-35; 1 Kgs. 20:35b-43). The Israelites were not the only people of the Ancient Near East to have done this practice in war as an act of religious obedience.
THE UNITED MONARCHY (1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings 1-11)
The four books of 1-2 Samuel and 1-2 Kings originally were two books, Samuel and Kings, in the Hebrew Bible. In the Greek Septuagint, these two books were divided into four and known as 1, 2, 3, and 4 Kingdoms. Together these books record the rise of Israel’s first kings and the eventual demise of the separate kingdoms of Israel and Judah.
Events Leading to the
Monarchy
Samuel was born to a formerly barren woman named Hannah (1 Sam. 1:1-2:11). Samuel was dedicated to the Lord and raised by the inept priest Eli (1 Sam. 2:12-36). As a child, Samuel was called to be a prophet for the Lord (1 Sam. 3:1-4:1a). After a battle with the Philistines (1 Sam. 4:1b-22), the ark of the covenant was captured (1 Sam. 4:5-11) and Eli and his sons died (1 Sam. 4:12-18). The Philistines eventually sent the ark back (1 Sam. 5:1-7:2). Samuel emerges not merely as a tribal, military leader; instead, he was considered a national, spiritual leader (1 Sam. 7:1-17). Samuel becomes the "king maker" (who anoints Saul and David) and "king breaker" (who rejects Saul).
Only three kings of Israel and Judah are described as ruling over both the northern and southern regions: Saul, David, and Solomon. Thus, this period is called the "united monarchy" even though Israel and Judah were never truly united as one people, only united under one ruler (e.g., 2 Sam. 20:1; 1 Kgs. 12:16).
Rulers of the United Monarchy:
The text of 1 Samuel contains passages that are in favor of having a king (1 Sam. 9:1-10:16; 11:1-15) and others that are not (1 Sam. 7:3-8:22; 10:17-27; 12:1-15). The presence of both opinions is probably due to the use of differing sources by the author/compiler. The early Israelites had considered themselves to be distinct tribes under Yahweh's sovereign rule and not in need of a national king as other nations. Some Israelites considered having a king to be disobedience and a desire to "be like the other nations" (1 Sam. 8:19-20). Other Israelites saw the need for a national king to bring tribal unity against the constant threat of the Philistines.
Saul is described as being chosen to be king secretly by Samuel (1 Sam. 9:1-10:16) and publicly by the people (10:17-27). Saul showed potential as being a great military leader for Israel (11:1-15), but ultimately Samuel rejects him as king due to his disobedience. At first Saul is rejected because he assumed priestly duties before battle (13:7b-15a). Then Saul is rejected for disobeying instructions to utterly destroy the Amalekites (15:1-35). Consequently, Saul's reign follows a tragic demise as he becomes obsessed with destroying his perceived rival, David. The text of Samuel contrasts the negative aspects of Saul against the positive aspects of David in order to enhance the description of David (and Solomon) as the golden age of Israel.
David's origins are obscure other than being the youngest son of an otherwise unknown member of the tribe of Judah named Jesse. Three episodes depict David's early years. First, Samuel arrives in Bethlehem to anoint one of Jesse's sons to be the next king (1 Sam. 16:1-13). To everyone's surprise, Samuel anointed David, not one of his older brothers. Second, David played the harp in Saul's royal court (1 Sam. 16:14-23). Third, David impressed Saul by killing the Philistine, Goliath of Gath (1 Sam. 17:1-58). David's inroads to the throne strengthen in the ensuing narratives. David developed a deep friendship with Jonathan, Saul's son (1 Sam. 18:1-30). David became a successful and popular military leader (1 Sam. 18:7). The Israelite women sing how Saul had slain thousands, but David ten thousands. David married Michal, Saul's daughter (1 Sam. 18:20-27).
David and his posse roam the countryside (1 Sam. 22:2; 30:26-31) as he is hunted by Saul. David never plots maliciously against Saul (1 Sam. 23:15-24:22; 26:1-25), even though Saul sought to kill David (1 Sam. 18:1-22:23). Eventually, after consulting a medium at Endor (28:1-25), Saul died in the battle of Gilboa in which his sons were killed and all their bodies were treated shamefully (1 Sam. 31:1-13).
After Saul's death, David was anointed to be king of Judah in the south at Hebron (2 Sam. 2:1-7), but Abner (Saul's military commander) appointed one of Saul's sons to be king of Israel in the north (2 Sam. 2:8-11). After a prolonged civil war, the house of David led by his commander Joab triumphed over the house of Saul led by his commander Abner (2 Sam. 2:12-4:12). Then David became king over all Israel as well. David conquered the Philistines, the perpetual enemy of the Israelites (2 Sam. 5:17-25). He captured the Jebusite city of Jerusalem and made it his political and religious capital (2 Sam. 5:1-6:23). David wanted to build a temple for Yahweh, but instead the Lord established an everlasting covenant with David ensuring that his descendants would rule forever (2 Sam. 7:1-29).
After further success (2 Sam. 8:1-10:19), David's regal career takes a tragic turn due to his adultery with Bathsheba and the subsequent murder of her husband Uriah the Hittite (2 Sam. 11:1-27). The narratives strikingly contrast the intense loyalty of Uriah to David and his fellow-soldiers against David's disloyalty and sin. David is sternly rebuked by the prophet Nathan (2 Sam. 12:1-25). As a consequence for his sin, David's household will be racked with turmoil. Soon, his daughter Tamar is raped by her half-brother Amnon (2 Sam. 13:1-39), Amnon is then murdered by Tamar's brother Absalom (2 Sam. 13:1-39), and Absalom (David's favorite son) rebels and eventually is killed (2 Sam. 13:1-18:33). David's life and reign ends after other various exploits (2 Sam. 19:1-24:25).
When David was on his deathbed, Bathsheba ensures that her son Solomon would become the next king, not David's oldest living son (1 Kgs. 1:5-53). Solomon becomes renowned for his wisdom (1 Kgs. 3:1-28; 4:29-34). Among other building projects, Solomon builds the first Temple to Yahweh in Jerusalem (1 Kgs. 5:1-6:38; 8:1-66) around 960 BC. Solomon's immense wealth is often described (1 Kgs. 7:1-51; 10:1-29). Solomon is also famous for having hundreds of wives and concubines (1 Kgs. 11:1-43). Many of these wives were the daughters of foreign kings with whom Solomon had former military alliances. To the author, however, these women were his demise since they led him to worship the gods and goddesses of these other nations.
Theology Associated with David and Solomon
The times of David and Solomon were later revered by the Jewish people as the golden age of Israel. Several important theological developments are traced to this time period.
First, under David and Solomon, Jerusalem emerges as the central city for the worship of Yahweh. In the times of the tribal confederacy, the Israelites had worshipped Yahweh (and other gods) in various places throughout the land. With David, Jerusalem becomes the central site for Israelite worship. David wanted to build the first temple to Yahweh, but that privilege was granted to his son Solomon. The narrative of 2 Samuel 7 makes an intentional play on the word "house" (Hebrew, beth): David lives in a great house (i.e., royal palace) and wants to build Yahweh a great house (i.e., temple); instead, the Lord replies, "Will you make me a great "house" (i.e., temple)? No, I will make you a great house (i.e., dynasty of descendants)." In Jewish literature, Jerusalem (also called "Zion") becomes known as "the city of God" since the temple stood there as the dwelling place of Yahweh. This emphasis on Jerusalem becomes a frequent theme in passages such as in Psalms 46, 48, 76, and 87.
Second, with David, Solomon, and the building of the Temple, there is a renewed emphasis on Yahweh as the God of Israel. Even though Solomon became idolatrous, the narratives of Kings describe David as being the measuring rod for subsequent kings due to his allegiance to the Lord, his lack of idolatry, and the glory he brought to Israel (see 1 Kgs. 15:4-5). The kings of Judah were considered to be empowered to rule in Jerusalem as the adopted son of Yahweh (see 2 Sam. 7:14; Ps. 2:7; 89:26-27). Many Old Testament specialists date the origins of the Yahwist narratives in the Pentateuch (the so-called "J-source") to these times. This source would have emphasized the name Yahweh throughout the stories of Israel's origins. In the narratives of 1-2 Kings, the success or failure of the kings was measured solely in their ability to keep the covenant, not if they were able to win battles, expand the borders, or rule for an extended period of time. The kings that were obedient to the covenant were judged to have done what was "right in the eyes of the Lord" while the idolatrous kings were considered to have done what was "evil in the eyes of the Lord." The author focused predominantly on the religious aspect of the kingdoms, whether or not the kings had worshipped only Yahweh.
Third, due to the dominance of David and Solomon as early kings of Israel, the dynasty of David becomes revered. Many passages of the Hebrew Bible emphasize the glory and permanency of the dynasty of David (see Psalm 2, 72, 89, 110, and 132). David is promised that his descendants would rule forever (see 2 Sam. 7:13, 16). Even though the Israelites split into a Northern Kingdom of Israel and a Southern Kingdom of Judah after Solomon, the dynasty of David continued through twenty consecutive descendants on the throne in Jerusalem, from Rehoboam in the 920s until Zedekiah in the 580s. The people of Judah often longed for a ruler like David (see Isaiah 9:1-7; 11:1-9). When the reigning line came to an end with Zedekiah in 587 BC, this hope developed into expectations for a Jewish messiah, a "son of David" (i.e., descendant of David).
The Divided Monarchy: The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah (1
Kings 12 - 2 Kings 25)
|
ca. 960 BC |
Building of the First Temple of Yahweh in Jerusalem. Solomon builds this temple and it stands until 587 BC. |
|
922 BC |
Separation of the Kingdoms. Jeroboam 1 begins to reign in Israel (north) and Rehoboam begins to reign in Judah (south) |
|
734 BC |
The Syro-Ephraimitic Crisis in Judah. King Rezin of Syria and King Pekah of Israel (Ephraim) try to force King Ahaz of Judah to form an alliance against the Assyrians. Ahaz unwisely seeks help from Assyria and Judah becomes a vassal to Assyria. |
|
721 BC |
Fall of the Northern Kingdom. The Assyrians under Sargon 2 conquer the Northern Kingdom of Israel (Ephraim) and destroy the capital city of Samaria. This is the end of the Northern Kingdom. |
|
701 BC |
The Sennacherib Crisis in Judah. King Sennacherib of Assyria besieges Jerusalem but does not conquer the city. |
|
621 BC |
Josiah’s Religious Reforms. King Josiah of Judah discovers the "book of the Law" (Deuteronomy?) in the temple and institutes wide-sweeping religious reforms that purges the land of idolatrous practices and reaffirms Yahweh as Judah’s only God. |
|
612 BC |
Fall of Nineveh. The Babylonians conquer Nineveh, the capital city of Assyria. |
|
605 BC |
Battle of Carchemish. King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon conquers the Egyptians led by Pharaoh Necho 2. This assures that the Babyonians, not the Egyptians, would replace the Assyrians as the major power in the Ancient Near East. King Jehoiakim of Judah switches loyalties from Egypt to Babylon |
|
597 BC |
Subjugation of Judah. Jehoiakim rebels against Babylon but dies before the Babylonian army arrives to subjugate Jerusalem. Jehoiachin (his son) becomes king and surrenders the city to Nebuchadnezzar. Jehoiachin and leading citizens (including Ezekiel) were taken as the first group of exiles to Babylon. The Babylonians appoint Zedekiah to be king of Judah. |
|
587 BC |
Fall of Jerusalem and Beginning of Babylonian Exile. After Zedekiah rebels against Babylon, the city of Jerusalem is destroyed including the walls and temple. More of the Jewish leaders and people are deported to Babylon and the monarchy of Judah ends. The Babylonians appoint a governor to oversee Jerusalem. |
Solomon is the last king of both the northern region known as Israel and the southern region known as Judah. After he dies, Judah and Israel separate and never again are united. The northern tribes resent the Judean-based dynasty of David that replaces the dynasty of Saul. Furthermore, under David and Solomon, Jerusalem emerges as the only worship center, which results in de-emphasis on northern worship sites. Solomon was an oppressive ruler, but his son Rehoboam asserts himself as even a harsher ruler than his father. Soon, the people of Israel revolt and make Jeroboam 1 their king (1 Kgs. 12:1-14:31). To keep the people of Israel (the Northern Kingdom) from worshiping in Judah at Jerusalem, Jeroboam 1 sets up golden calves at Dan and Bethel to represent the Lord (1 Kgs. 12:25-33). These were strategically placed at the northern (Dan) and southern (Bethel) boundaries of Israel to keep the people of Israel from worshipping elsewhere such as in Jerusalem.
The author of 1-2 Kings has an obvious preference for Judah over Israel for at least two reasons. First, the city of Jerusalem was in Judah, and thus also the temple of the Lord. Even though the Northern Kingdom sometimes worshiped the Lord at the sanctuaries at Dan and Bethel, to the author, these sites stood for idolatry and disregard for the commandments of the Lord (1 Kgs. 13:33-34; 22:52; 2 Kgs. 3:3; 10:28-31; 13:2, 6, 11; 17:21-22; 23:15). Second, Judah was ruled by the dynasty of David, whom the author considered to be the ideal representative of what a king was to be (2 Sam 7:11b-17; 21:17; 1 Kgs. 11:36; 15:4-5; 2 Kgs. 8:19). To the author, the Northern Kingdom was ruled by a succession of illegitimate dynasties, even though a few of them had been appointed by the Lord’s prophets (e.g., Jeroboam in 1 Kgs. 11:29-39; Jehu in 2 Kgs. 9:8-9).
The author of 1-2 Kings summarily introduces the various kings of Judah and Israel in chronological sequence after Solomon. At times this becomes confusing because the history alternates back and forth between Israel and Judah. Each ruler is introduced with a similar introduction and conclusion which serve as bookends around the description of the particular ruler:
The author of 1-2 Kings was not attempting to record all the activities and policies of each ruler; instead, the author focuses on the religious dimension of the kingdoms. Numerous prophets appear in the narratives such as Ahijah, Jehu, Elijah, Micaiah, Elisha, Isaiah, and Huldah, among others. These prophets play a major role in the narratives as they guide and interpret the history of the kingdoms. Their presence is the reason that the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings are known as the "Former Prophets" in the Hebrew Bible.
The
Northern Kingdom of Israel (922-721 BC)
The Northern Kingdom was known as Israel (since it was comprised of ten of the twelve tribes), Ephraim (the dominant tribe of the ten), or Samaria (the capital city from the time of Omri on). The Northern Kingdom was stronger than Judah in terms of size, strategic location, economic prosperity, and military strength. The Northern Kingdom suffered from political instability, having nine dynasties in two centuries. To the author, all of Israel’s kings did what was "evil in the sight of the Lord" due to the golden calves at Dan and Bethel. Rulers with an asterisk below are the beginning of a new dynasty.
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RULERS OF ISRAEL |
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|
Name |
Reign |
Biblical Reference |
Highlights |
|
Jeroboam 1* |
922-901 |
1 Kgs. 11:26-14:20; |
led revolt against Rehoboam |
|
Nadab |
901-900 |
1 Kgs. 15:25-28 |
murdered by Baasha |
|
Baasha* |
900-877 |
1 Kgs. 15:27-16:7; |
overthrew the dynasty of Jeroboam |
|
Elah |
877-876 |
1 Kgs. 16:6-14 |
murdered by his servant Zimri |
|
Zimri* |
876 |
1 Kgs. 16:9-20 |
overthrew the dynasty of Baasha |
|
Omri* |
876-869 |
1 Kgs. 16:15-28 |
long, powerful reign |
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Ahab |
869-850 |
1 Kgs. 16:28-22:40; |
married to Jezebel of Phoenicia |
|
Ahaziah |
850-849 |
1 Kgs. 22:40 - 2 Kgs. 1:18; 2 Chr. 20:35-37 |
died from injuries in an accident |
|
Jehoram |
849-842 |
2 Kgs. 3:1-27; 9:1-37; 2 Chr. 22:5-7 |
battled against Mesha of Moab |
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Jehu* |
842-815 |
2 Kgs. 9:1-10:36; |
overthrew Omri’s dynasty |
|
Jehoahaz |
815-801 |
2 Kgs. 13:1-9 |
battled against Aram (Syria) |
|
Jehoash |
801-786 |
2 Kgs. 13:10-14:16; |
battled against Aram and Judah |
|
Jeroboam 2 |
786-746 |
2 Kgs. 14:23-29 |
long, powerful, prosperous reign |
|
Zechariah |
746-745 |
2 Kgs. 14:29-15:12 |
reigned only six months |
|
Shallum* |
745 |
2 Kgs. 15:10-15 |
killed 1 month later by Menahem |
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Menahem* |
745-738 |
2 Kgs. 15:14-22 |
paid tribute money to Assyria |
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Pekahiah |
738-737 |
2 Kgs. 15:22-26 |
killed by his captain, Pekah |
|
Pekah* |
737-732 |
2 Kgs. 15:27-31; |
killed by Hoshea |
|
Hoshea* |
732-721 |
2 Kgs. 17:1-6 |
paid tribute money to Assyria |
According to Assyrian and Moabite records, Omri was a powerful and influential king of Israel. A hundred and fifty years after Omri was gone, Israel was still known as the "Land of Omri." Only fourteen verses (1 Kgs. 16:15-28) describe his activities, probably since he was an idolatrous ruler who fared rather well. Omri makes Samaria the capital city of Israel. The text of 1 Kings focuses on Omri's son Ahab whom Omri had married to Jezebel, a princess of Tyre. During Ahab’s reign, the prophet Elijah emerges as the dominant voice calling the people of Israel back to Yahweh (1 Kings 17-2 Kings 2).
In two dramatic episodes, the prophet Elijah, whose name means "Yahweh is God," shows Yahweh to be superior to Baal. First, Elijah declares that the land of Israel would suffer under a three-year drought (1 Kgs. 17:1-7; 18:1, 41-46). A calamity such as this would demonstrate the superiority of Yahweh, the God of Israel, over Baal since Baal was a storm god for the Canaanites. Second, Elijah has a contest with 450 prophets of Baal at Mount Carmel (1 Kgs. 18:1-40) to see who call down fire from heaven to consume a sacrifice. Elijah allows the prophets of Baal to act first. When their efforts are unsuccessful, Elijah mocks them by asking if Baal might be asleep or relieving himself. In dramatic fashion, Elijah douses the sacrifice with water and calls down fire from heaven to show that Yahweh is the real God of Israel. Elijah is eventually succeeded by his understudy, Elisha (1 Kgs. 19:19-21; 2 Kgs. 2:1-25). Elisha is famous for his numerous miracles (2 Kgs. 4:1-8:6).
The prophet Elisha appoints Jehu to become the next king of Israel (2 Kgs. 9:1-13). Jehu becomes king through a bloody revolution in which he and his men end up killing around seventy members of the royal families of both Israel and Judah. These include King Joram of Israel (9:14-26), King Ahaziah of Judah (2 Kgs. 9:27-28), Queen Jezebel of Israel (2 Kgs. 9:30-37), the descendants of King Ahab (2 Kgs. 10:1-11, 15-17), the descendants of King Ahaziah, and all apparent worshipers of Baal (2 Kgs. 10:18-27). Jehu purges the land of the worship of Baal and reestablishes the worship of Yahweh. Despite all these efforts, the author of 2 Kings offers only limited praise for Jehu due to the golden calves at Dan and Bethel (2 Kgs. 10:28-31). To the author these stood for idolatry even though the people of Israel considered them to be representative of Yahweh.
The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser 3 of Assyria pictures King Jehu of Israel bringing tribute money to the Assyrian King, an event not mentioned in the Bible.
Eventually, Jeroboam 2, the great-grandson of Jehu, comes to the throne of Samaria (786-746 BC). Only seven verses of 2 Kings mention the exploits of this influential king (2 Kgs. 14:23-27). Like Omri, the author of 2 Kings has little to say about Jeroboam 2 since he broke the covenant and yet the nation seemed to prosper. Even though they are not mentioned in 2 Kings, the prophets Amos and Hosea speak harshly against the leaders of Israel during the economic prosperity of the reign of Jeroboam 2 (see Amos 7:11; Hos. 1:4-5; 10:7, 15; 13:16).
After Jeroboam 2, Israel suffered from the reign of weak kings. Further to the east at the top of the Fertile Crescent, Assyria grew in power as an empire under Tiglath-pileser 3 (known as "Pul" in 2 Kings). This combination led to the demise of the Northern Kingdom after the death of Jeroboam 2.
In 734 BC, Israel joined forces with another petty kingdom to the north known as Syria (also known by the name of its capital city Damascus) against the Assyrians. But this upstart coalition was unsuccessful (2 Kgs. 16:3-9). The Assyrians under Tiglath-Pileser 3 conquered Damascus and subjugated Israel into become a vassal state. Vassal states had to pay large amounts of tribute money to the suzerain (the conquering nation or empire) in order to avoid severe oppression. Within a few years, King Hoshea of Israel unwisely refused to pay tribute money to Shalmaneser 5 of Assyria (2 Kgs. 17:4). The Assyrians under Sargon 2 (Shalmaneser's successor) marched into Israel and conquered Samaria and the entire Northern Kingdom in 721 BC (2 Kgs. 17:5-6). The people of the Northern Kingdom were deported (2 Kgs. 17:6, 18, 23) and foreigners were imported into the land of Israel (2 Kgs. 17:24-41). Empires of the Ancient Near East often used deportations to subjugate a nation by breaking its national spirit and blurring its national identity. Even though the political reason for the fall of Israel was it's refusal to pay tribute money to the Assyrians, the author of 2 Kings clearly stated a theological reason for the fall of the Northern Kingdom:
After the fall of Israel, the people of the Northern Kingdom never regained their tribal identities. The remnants of the people eventually became known as "Samaritans," whom the people of the Southern Kingdom would treat with great disdain.
The
Southern Kingdom of Judah (922-587 BC)
According to 1-2 Kings, the kings of Judah were different than the kings of Israel in at least two major ways. First, Judah had only one ruling family, (the dynasty of David) for 350 years whereas Israel was ruled by nine dynasties in two centuries. Second, some of Judah’s kings were considered to have done what was "right in the sight of the Lord" whereas all of Israel's kings were considered "evil in the eyes of the Lord" due to the golden calves at Dan and Bethel. As a nation, Judah never was as strong Israel. Rulers of Judah in italic below are considered to have done what was "right in the eyes of the Lord" according to 1-2 Kings.
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THE RULERS OF JUDAH |
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|
Name |
Reign |
Biblical Reference |
Highlights |
|
Rehoboam |
922-915 |
1 Kgs. 11:42-14:31; |
ruled more harshly than Solomon |
|
Abijam |
915-913 |
1 Kgs. 14:31-15:8; |
continued conflict with Israel |
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Asa |
913-873 |
1 Kgs. 15:8-24; |
continued conflict with Israel |
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Jehoshaphat |
873-8 | ||