UNIT 2: THE TORAH

Unit 2 of CST100 surveys the Torah. The main sections for Unit 2 are:

The recommending readings from the Bible for this unit of material are the following chapters: Genesis 1-3, 12, 16, 21-22; Exodus 1-5, 11-14, 20.

Overview of the Torah

The Torah is the first five books of the Old Testament: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. "Torah" is a Hebrew word that means "Law." Even though roughly half of the material in these five books is narrative, the Hebrew people called these books the Torah because they comprise the law codes of the Jewish people. These five books are also known by the Greek term "Pentateuch" which means "five books." These books are also sometimes called the "Books of Moses" since Exodus through Deuteronomy span the career of Moses from birth to death.

The Torah is comprised of both narratives and legal materials. The narratives are often interrupted by genealogies (as in Genesis 5, 10-11), censuses (as in Numbers 1-4) or large blocks of law codes (such as Exodus 25-31, 35-40; Leviticus; and Deuteronomy 1-33). The English titles for the five books of the Torah come from their names in the Septuagint. In the Hebrew Bible, the books were known by their opening lines. The books of the Torah can be summarized as follows:

  • Genesis records stories of origins and narratives about the Hebrew ancestors such as Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Rebekkah, Jacob, Leah, Rachel, Esau, and Joseph. Genesis was known in the Hebrew Bible as "In the beginning." The term "Genesis" means "beginning" in Greek.
  • Exodus records the story of the deliverance from Egypt and the giving of the Law at Mount Sinai. Exodus was known as "And these are the names" in the Hebrew Bible. The name "Exodus" means "departure" or more literally "the way out" in Greek.
  • Leviticus records regulations pertaining to ancient Israelite worship, such as the priests, sacrifices, religious festivals, and distinctions between clean and unclean. Leviticus was known as "And he called" in the Hebrew Bible. "Leviticus" is a Greek adjective that means "pertaining to the Levites" who were the priests.
  • Numbers records the story of the wandering in the wilderness. Numbers was known as "In the wilderness" in the Hebrew Bible. The English title "Numbers" is from the title in the Septuagint, "Arithmoi," since the people are numbered in the book.
  • Deuteronomy serves as Moses' farewell address as Israel camps near the Promised Land before Moses’ death. Deuteronomy summarizes and repeats many of the laws found in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. Deuteronomy was known as "These are the words" in the Hebrew Bible. "Deuteronomy" in Greek means "second law" since the book summarizes and repeats many of the laws in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers.

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Composition of the Torah

The authorship of the Torah has been the subject of much debate. Until the 1700s, virtually all Jews and Christians considered Moses to be the author of the Torah, both law codes and narratives (see Mark 12:19; John 1:45; 5:46-47; Romans 10:5), since he was the great Law-giver for the Hebrew people.

Many Old Testament specialists today think that the books of the Torah are compilations of earlier sources that originally existed as independent documents. These sources would have been early records of the Hebrew people that eventually were woven together into the books of the Torah as known today. This source theory is known as the "Documentary Hypothesis" or the J-E-P-D theory. No external evidence (manuscripts, that is) exists to validate the hypothesis. The theory is based on internal clues within the text itself.

First, references to Moses in the Torah often don't sound like Moses is writing about himself. References to Moses are third person, not first person. Moses' death and burial are narrated in Deuteronomy 34. Other references to Moses in the Torah do not sound autobiographical such as Numbers 12:3, "Now the man Moses was very humble, more so than anyone else on the face of the earth."

Second, the Torah often makes temporal references that sound anachronistic in the times of Moses. Reminders are given in Genesis 12:6 and 13:7 that "at that time the Canaanites lived in the land." This seems out of place in the times of Moses since the Canaanites lived in the land of Palestine for hundreds of years after Moses. Genesis 36:31 and Deuteronomy 17:14-20 refer to the kings of Israel even though Israel had no king until Saul, hundreds of years after the Exodus.

Third, the Torah tends to use different names for God in different blocks of verses. Sometimes God is called "God" (Hebrew, Elohim) as in Genesis 1:1-2:3; in other places, the "Lord God" (Hebrew, Yahweh Elohim) as in Genesis 2:4-3:24; and still in other places, "the Lord" (Hebrew, Yahweh) as in Genesis 4:1-25. Source theorists (those who espouse the Documentary Hypothesis) think that each of the sources or documents behind the Torah had a preference for a particular name for God. The J-source would have preferred the name "Yahweh" (spelled "Jahveh" in German) while the E-source would have preferred "Elohim." After the sources were woven together into one consecutive narrative, the block mixture of names left clues to the original source of the passage.

Fourth, the Torah tends to have similar styles, emphases, and themes corresponding to the passages that use particular names for God. In passages using the name Yahweh ("the Lord") for God, the Lord is usually described anthropomorphically with humanlike features. For example, the Lord ("Yahweh") walks up to and converses with humans as in Genesis chapters 3 and 18. On the other hand, in passages using the term Elohim ("God"), God communicates transcendently through dreams, visions, or angels as in Genesis chapters 20 and 31.

Fifth, at various places the Torah records episodes that sound similar or redundant to other episodes. For example, the creation of the world is described in two separate accounts, Genesis 1:1-2:3 and 2:4-25. A divine covenant is made with Abraham in both Genesis 15:1-21 and 17:1-27. Abraham puts Sarah in jeopardy by lying in both Genesis 12:10-13 and 20:1-18. Hagar and Ishmael are expelled from Abraham's camp in both Genesis 16:1-16 and 21:1-21. Source theorists think that such repetition or duplication is due to similar accounts originating from separate sources or documents.

Source theorists have many different versions of the Documentary Hypothesis. Most source theorists think that there are four main sources behind the Torah. The J-source preferred the name Yahweh ("the Lord") and would have originated in the Southern Kingdom of Judah during and after David and Solomon in the 900s BC. The E-source preferred the term Elohim ("God") and would have originated in the Northern Kingdom of Israel (Ephraim) in the 800s BC. The P-source (for "priestly") emphasized rituals associated with Jewish worship and would have originated in Judah after the exile in the 400s BC. The D-source emphasized covenant faithfulness in Deuteronomy and would have originated after Josiah's reforms in 621 BC.

Source theorists often compare the Documentary Hypothesis to the situation of the New Testament regarding the Gospels. The New Testament contains four accounts of the life of Jesus (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) which sometimes differ in details. Some early Christians tried to harmonize these into one "unabridged" edition of the life of Jesus. Old Testament source theorists think that instead of having the separate sources (such as four separate Gospels in the New Testament), the Torah represents a harmonized history of the Hebrew people.

In conclusion, the Documentary Hypothesis is a hypothesis but one that is held by many Old Testament specialists. Even though many support the theory, others do not. There is no manuscript evidence for separate sources behind the Torah; however, the oldest manuscripts of the Torah date to the 100s BC, long after most source theorists believe the accounts would have been woven together.

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Genesis

Many of the most famous episodes from the Torah are found in Genesis, especially the opening eleven chapters. These include such stories as the seven days of creation, Adam and Eve, the Garden of Eden, Cain and Abel, Noah and the flood, and the tower of Babel. Such familiarity can become misleading. Many modern readers fail to realize that the climatic event in the Torah is not found in Genesis but in Exodus when the Israelites are delivered from Egypt and the covenant is made at Mount Sinai. In many ways, Genesis is a fifty-chapter introduction explaining important background that leads up to the Exodus event. Why were the Israelites in Egypt so that they would need deliverance? Because the story in Genesis ends with the family of Jacob migrating there to meet his son Joseph. Why were the Israelites special among the peoples of the ancient world? Because God had made promises to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.

Chapters 12-50 of Genesis are the ancestral narratives. Four successive generations of Hebrew ancestors star in the narratives: Abraham then Isaac then Jacob then Joseph. The ancestral narratives frequently mention the promises originally made to Abraham that his descendants would be numerous and would inherit the land of Canaan.

Chapters 1-11 of Genesis are often called the primeval ("early ages") stories since they are stories about origins. These primeval stories explain backgrounds that are important for understanding the story of the Israelites as it unfolds later. For example, the origins of the Nephilim are mentioned in Genesis 6:1-4 since they are the ancestors of the Anakites who are the giants whom the Israelites feared in the land of Canaan (see Numbers 13:30-33). The reason the Israelites later considered the Canaanites to be a cursed people is narrated in Genesis 9:20-27 when Noah got drunk. Genesis chapters 1-11 provide the necessary background to introduce the first major ancestor, Abraham.

Much of Genesis explains the origins of neighboring nations, sacred places, and religious rituals that were important to the Hebrew people. Besides the Anakites and Canaanites, the origins of other nations are explained in Genesis. The reason that the Israelites considered their eastern neighbors, the Moabites and Ammonites, to be depraved is told in Genesis 19:1-38 when Lot's daughters incestuously sleep with their father. The reason for the enmity later between the Israelites and their southeastern neighbor, the Edomites, is narrated in the stories of Jacob and Esau.

The origins for places of worship are often explained in Genesis. Bethel was a sacred site for the Northern Kingdom of Israel (see Judges 20:26-27; Amos 5:4-6; 7:10-17; 1 Kgs. 12:26-29). The stories behind Bethel being a sacred site are told in Genesis 28:10-22; 31:13; and 35:1-15. Beer-Sheba was a sacred site in southern Palestine (see Amos 5:4-6; 8:14). The stories behind Beer-Sheba being a sacred site are told in Genesis 21:22-34 and 26:23-33. The story behind Penuel (or Peniel, “face of El”; see 1 Kgs 12:25) is told in Genesis 32:22-32.

The origins for religious rituals are often explained in Genesis. The reason that the Israelites were to recognize the seventh day as the Sabbath is explained in the seven days of creation (Genesis 1:1-2:3; see also Exodus 20:11). The significance of marriage is traced to Adam and Eve (see Genesis 2:21-25). The origin of the act of tithing (giving a tenth of one's possessions in worship) is traced to stories about Abraham (Genesis 14:20) and Jacob (Genesis 28:22). The origin of circumcision as the initiation rite for the Hebrew people is traced to the covenant made with Abraham (Genesis 17:1-27).

The origins of natural phenomenon that would seem puzzling in the ancient world are often explained in Genesis. The disobedience in the Garden of Eden (Genesis 3:1-24) explains such mysteries as why humans die, why serpents crawl on the ground (Gen 3:14-15), why mothers have pain in childbirth (Gen 3:16), why the earth doesn't naturally produce an abundance of food (Gen 3:17-19), and why people wear clothing (Gen 3:7-11, 21). The origins of the rainbow are traced to Noah and the flood (Genesis 9:12-17). The reason for the many languages in the world is traced to the tower of Babel (Genesis 11:1-9). Unlike Israel’s neighbors who often described the changing of the seasons with mythological stories about gods and goddesses, Genesis simply describes the origin of the seasons on Day 4 when the sun and moon are created (Genesis 1:14).

In summary, Genesis explains the origins of many things -- things that would have been important to the Hebrew people but are not always seen as important by modern readers. Modern readers often open the pages of Genesis looking for explanations that are beyond the conceptual world of the Hebrew people. Genesis never addresses modern scientific issues such as dinosaurs, Neanderthals, ice ages, or the expansion of the universe because the Hebrew people would not have known that such issues existed. The Hebrew people lived in a world before microscopes and telescopes. Genesis addresses issues that were important to the Hebrew people in their times, issues such as the nature, character, and identity of God and the origins of such things as their sacred sites, their religious rituals, and their neighbors.

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Genesis 1-11, the Primeval Stories

Genesis opens with two accounts of creation. In the first account of creation (Genesis 1:1-2:3), God ("Elohim") speaks the world into existence in seven days. This account reverberates with a stirring poetic cadence as key phrases recur with each ensuing day. The order of creation in Genesis chapter one is:

  • Day 1 - separation of light from darkness (1:3-5)
  • Day 2 - separation of waters above from waters below (1:6-8)
  • Day 3 - separation of dry land from the waters and the emergence of vegetation (1:9-13)
  • Day 4 - creation of the sun, moon, and stars (1:14-19)
  • Day 5 - creation of fish and birds (1:20-23)
  • Day 6 - creation of animals and humans (1:24-31)
  • Day 7 - rest (2:1-3)

The order of creation is significant. In the first three days, God creates order out of chaos with acts of separation. Days 4, 5, and 6 describe the creation of the individual entities which then populate the setting from Days 1, 2, and 3. The sun, moon, and stars on Day 4 correspond to the separation of light and darkness on Day 1. The birds and fish on Day 5 correspond to the separation of waters above and waters below on Day 2. The creation of animals and humans on Day 6 correspond to the emergence of dry ground and vegetation on Day 3.

Emphasis is placed on humans as the crowning act of creation. More space is devoted to the creations of humans than to any other creature. Humans alone are described as being made in the "image of God." Humans were appointed to rule over the rest of creation.

The Hebrew people lived in a polytheistic world. Their neighbors worshipped many gods and goddesses that were often identified as the sun, moon, or stars and depicted as birds, fish, and animals. Genesis chapter one served as a major rejection of the religions of Israel's neighbors. The God of Israel was not to be depicted as a fish, bird, or animal since humans were the closest correspondence to God's character. The God of Israel was not the sun, the moon, or any star because God created these things, and not even until the fourth day. This Hebrew account of creation "one upped" the religions of Israel's neighbors who worshipped gods and goddesses in these ways. This theological agenda is clearly seen in Deuteronomy 4:15-19.

  • "15 . . . take care and watch yourselves closely, 16 so that you [Israelites] do not act corruptly by making an idol for yourselves, in the form of any figure-- the likeness of male or female, 17 the likeness of any animal that is on the earth, the likeness of any winged bird that flies in the air, 18 the likeness of anything that creeps on the ground, the likeness of any fish that is in the water under the earth. 19 And when you look up to the heavens and see the sun, the moon, and the stars, all the host of heaven, do not be led astray and bow down to them and serve them, . . ." --Deuteronomy 4:15-19

This passage clearly rejects the worship of anything that was created on Days 4, 5, and 6 according to Genesis 1:14-31. Thus, Genesis chapter one is primarily concerned with the proper identity and worship of God, not the mechanics of how the universe was created. Genesis chapter one was intended to promote the worship of Israel's God as creator in ways similar to Psalms 19, 33, and 104.

The second account of creation is found in Genesis 2:4-25. Here, the Lord God ("Yahweh Elohim") creates the first man (Hebrew, 'adam) from the ground (Hebrew, 'adamah) and the first woman (Hebrew, 'ishah) from the man (Hebrew, 'ish). This second account is anthropomorphic compared to the first account where God speaks the world into existence at a distance. This second account of creation is more "hands on" as the Lord God molds the man from the dust of the ground, breathes into him life, plants a garden, places the man in it, molds the woman from a rib, and walks in the garden.

The interpretation of the opening chapters of Genesis has generated much debate because important terms are somewhat ambiguous in the Hebrew Bible. The Hebrew word ‘adam translated either as a name "Adam" or simply as "man" in general referring to all humanity, both men and women. The opening chapters of Genesis use the term ‘adam in both ways. In some passages such as Genesis 5:3-5, the Hebrew word 'adam specifically denotes an individual named "Adam":

  • "3 When Adam (Hebrew, 'adam) had lived one hundred thirty years, he became the father of a son in his likeness, according to his image, and named him Seth. 4 The days of Adam (Hebrew, 'adam) after he became the father of Seth were eight hundred years; and he had other sons and daughters. 5 Thus all the days that Adam (Hebrew, 'adam) lived were nine hundred thirty years; and he died.

In other passages such as Genesis 1:27 'adam clearly denotes humans (both men and women) in general:

  • "So God created humankind (Hebrew, 'adam) in his image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them."

Furthermore, the name "Eve" means "life" (see Genesis 3:20) so that the original couple in Genesis is actually known in Hebrew as "mankind" and "life." Thus, some Christians interpret Genesis chapter two as describing the literal creation of two individuals named Adam and Eve and other Christians interpret Genesis chapter two metaphorically as the origins of humans in general.

This second account of creation continues into chapter three with the story of the temptation and disobedience of the man and the woman (Genesis 3:1-24). The serpent tricks the man and the woman to eat from the "tree of knowledge of good and evil" against the Lord’s instruction. The couple are expelled from the garden to prevent them from eating from the "tree of life." All the parties involved received curses that explain mysteries such as human mortality, childbirth pain, futility in farm work, and the serpent crawling on the ground.

The rest of Genesis 1-11 contains many memorable episodes that provide the background for the story of Abraham that formally begins in Genesis 12. In Genesis 4, Cain commits the first murder by killing his brother Abel. In Genesis 5, ten generations of predeluvian ancestors are outlined, all of which lived hundreds of years. In Genesis 6-8, Noah, his family, and the animals are spared from a destructive flood on a boat he built. The story of Noah has many striking similarities and differences to the Mesopotamian story, The Epic of Gilgamesh. In the Hebrew version of the flood, there is only one God who acts with reason and purpose unlike the Mesopotamian version where the gods send a flood to destroy humanity simply because they weren’t getting enough sleep! In Genesis 8-9, Noah’s grandson, Canaan, is cursed and a covenant is made with Noah. In Genesis 10-11, the genealogies continue. In Genesis 11, the origin of different languages is traced to the attempt to build a tower into heaven at Babel.

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Genesis 12-50, the Ancestral Narratives

The ancestral stories in Genesis narrate four successive generations of patriarchs: Abraham then Isaac then Jacob then Joseph. The narratives focus mainly on Abraham, Jacob, and Joseph – little mention is made of Isaac other than being the son of Abraham and the father of Jacob and Esau.

The Abraham-Sarah Narrative (Gen. 11:27-25:18)

The story of Abraham and Sarah is told in Genesis 11:27-25:18. Abraham is repeatedly promised that he would be blessed with land and posterity (12:1-3; 13:14-18; 15:1-21; 17:1-27). Abraham (originally called "Abram") migrates from Haran in northern Mesopotamia to the land of Canaan. Along the way, Abraham and Sarah (originally called "Sarai") are divinely guided and protected. Twice the destined line of Isaac was nearly lost before it began when foreign rulers seized Sarah as part of their herem (Genesis 12:10-20; 20:1-18). The stories of Abraham’s wandering intensify as Abraham and Sarah age and they still have no child. The couple attempt to produce an heir through Sarah’s handmaid, Hagar. Although Ishmael is born through this union, he is not the promised child and he and his mother are expelled from Abraham’s camp (16:1-16; 21:1-21). Eventually, Abraham has divine visitors that announce that a son will soon be born to Sarah (18:1-15) and shortly thereafter Isaac was born (21:1-21). Abraham’s faith is sharply tested when Abraham is asked to sacrifice his son Isaac on a mountaintop (22:1-19). The very promise of posterity is at stake in this dramatic episode.

The Jacob-Esau Narrative (Gen. 25:19-36:43)

Isaac and his wife Rebekkah (24:1-67) have twin sons. The older is named Esau (or Edom) and the younger is named Jacob (later Israel). The narratives focus on the successes of Jacob over his brother Esau since Jacob is the ancestor of the Israelites while Esau is the ancestor of the Edomites. At first, Jacob tricks his brother out of the birthright given to the oldest son (25:19-34). Then, Jacob tricks his brother out of the blessing conveyed by the dying father to the oldest son (27:1-45). Jacob then flees to his mother’s people in Haran and has a divine vision at Bethel along the way (27:46-28:22). In Haran, he ends up marrying two sisters, Leah and Rachel, but his obvious love is for Rachel. Through the sibling rivalry of the wives, Jacob ends up with twelve sons and a daughter, which eventually become the twelve tribes of Israel. Jacob prospers further by tricking a large number of flocks out of his father-in-law Laban. On his return to the land of Canaan, Jacob has another divine encounter at Peniel and Jacob is renamed, "Israel" (32:1-33:20). Through Jacob’s migrations, the promises of land and posterity originally made to Abraham are conveyed to Jacob as well.

The Joseph Narrative (Gen. 37:1-50:26)

The narratives of Jacob’s sons focus on Joseph, the oldest son of Jacob’s favorite wife, Rachel. Joseph receives special treatment from the hand of Jacob. Joseph alone is given a special coat by his father. Early on, Joseph has important dreams that are interpreted to mean that his brothers and even his father will one day pay homage to him. The brothers are jealous of Joseph and get rid of him by selling him into slavery (37:1-36). As a slave in Egypt, Joseph becomes successful while serving in the house of Potiphar; however, he is falsely accused of attempted rape (39:1-23). In prison, Joseph interprets the dreams of Pharaoh’s baker and cupbearer which come true, but Joseph is forgotten (40:1-23). Eventually, Joseph is released when he interprets the dreams of Pharaoh predicting that seven years of prosperity will precede seven years of famine (41:1-57). The story intensifies when Joseph encounters his long-lost brothers – who do not recognize him – as they seek to buy grain in Egypt during the famine (42:1-44:34). Eventually, Joseph reveals his identity to them and the entire family of Jacob ("Israel") migrates to Egypt (45:1-50:26).

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Theology of the Ancestors

The Hebrew religion has a long and storied history. The worship of the Hebrew people from the times of Moses (ca.1200s BC) until the Babylonian Exile (ca. 580s BC) is often called "Yahwism" because the Israelites worshipped God as "Yahweh." Judaism is the term for Jewish worship that emerged after the Exile. Little evidence remains of the way that the Hebrew ancestors worshiped and related to God before the Israelites were delivered from Egypt. Nevertheless, a few generalizations can be made.

First, the early Hebrew ancestors seem to have thought of God presiding over a heavenly council or ruling in a divine court in the heavens. This can be seen in various passages of the Old Testament such as:

  • "God (Hebrew, Elohim) has taken his place in the divine council; in the midst of the gods (Hebrew, Elohim) he holds judgment." –Psalm 82:1
  • "One day the sons of God came to present themselves before the Lord, and Satan also came among them." –Job 1:6
  • "7 Are you the firstborn of the human race? Were you brought forth before the hills? 8 Have you listened in the council of God (Hebrew, Elohim)? . . ." –Job 15:7-8
  • "5 Let the heavens praise your wonders, O Lord (Hebrew, Yahweh),
    your faithfulness in the assembly of the holy ones.
    6 For who in the skies can be compared to the Lord (Hebrew, Yahweh)?
    Who among the sons of God is like the Lord (Hebrew, Yahweh),
    7 a God (Hebrew, El) feared in the council of the holy ones,
    great and awesome above all that are around him?"
    –Psalm 89:5-7

This concept of a heavenly court seems to be reflected in the term Elohim, the most common term for God in the Hebrew Bible. Elohim is actually a plural noun that is sometimes translated as "gods" (as in Genesis 35:2-4) but most often is translated in the singular as "God." This concept of a heavenly court and the plural nature of the term Elohim sheds light on some otherwise intriguing wording in Genesis such as the plural pronouns in Genesis 1:26 (and also in 3:22; 11:7):

  • "Then God (Hebrew, Elohim) said, ‘Let us make humans in our image, according to our likeness; . . .’" –Genesis 1:26

This concept of a heavenly court also seems to serve as important background for the intriguing reference to "sons of God" in Genesis 6:1-4 (see also Job 1:6; 2:1):

  • "1 When people began to multiply on the face of the ground, and daughters were born to them, 2 the sons of God saw that they were fair; and they took wives for themselves of all that they chose. 3 Then the Lord said, ‘My spirit shall not abide in mortals forever, for they are flesh; their days shall be one hundred twenty years.’ 4 The Nephilim were on the earth in those days-- and also afterward—when the sons of God went in to the daughters of humans, who bore children to them. These were the heroes that were of old, warriors of renown."

Second, Genesis uses different names for God which are almost always based on the Hebrew root word, El. El was a generic Hebrew term for deity (as in Genesis 35:1b-3; 46:3), but El was also the chief deity and father of the gods among the Canaanites. The root name El is reflected in numerous names for God in the Torah. In Genesis 14:18-22, God is addressed as "God Most High" (Hebrew, El Elyon). In Genesis 16:13, Hagar recognizes "the God who sees" (Hebrew, El Roi). In Genesis 21:33, Abraham calls on the name of the "God of Eternity" (Hebrew, El Olam). In Genesis 31:13 (also 35:1-3), "the God of Bethel" (Hebrew, El Bethel) is revealed to Jacob. More often, Hebrew ancestors worshipped "God Almighty" (or possibly "God of the Mountain"; Hebrew, El Shaddai), as in Genesis 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; and other passages. Thus, before the divine name Yahweh was revealed to Moses, the Hebrew ancestors worshipped God by many different names rooted in the generic term El.

Third, the Hebrew ancestors had a concrete (not abstract or esoteric) understanding of God intervening in their lives. God was typically identified as the God of a particular person. God was understood to be the protector and benefactor of that individual and his family. Examples are numerous in Genesis such as the "God of Nahor" (Gen. 31:53), the "shield of Abraham" (Gen. 15:1), the "God of Abraham" (Gen. 26:24 and many other times), the "fear of Isaac" (Gen. 31:42), the "God of Isaac" (Gen 28:13 and many other times), the "Mighty One of Jacob, the Rock of Israel" (Gen 49:24), and the "God of Jacob." Eventually when the name Yahweh is revealed to Moses (Exod. 3:13-16), Yahweh ("the Lord") is identified as "the God of your ancestors, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob."

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The Escape Narratives in Exodus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy

The early history of the nation of Israel under the leadership of Moses is recorded in Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. These four books span the entire career of Moses since Exodus begins with his birth and Deuteronomy concludes with his death. These four books contain a block mixture of genres. The narratives are frequently interrupted with legal materials such as regulations, genealogies, tribal censuses, land allotments, and boundaries. Essentially, the narratives are found in Exodus 1-24, 32-34, Numbers 10-36, and Deuteronomy 34.

Exodus continues the story that ended in Genesis with Jacob’s family migrating to Egypt. The opening word of Exodus is the conjunction "and" which links the two books together. When Exodus opens, the descendants of Jacob are now a sizeable nation known as Israel living in a region of Egypt called Goshen. The Israelites are being oppressed by a pharaoh "who did not know Joseph" (Exodus 1:1-22). An infant Hebrew boy named Moses is rescued from certain death and ironically raised in pharaoh’s palace (2:1-10). As an adult, Moses flees to Midian (2:11-22). Eventually, God commissions Moses through a burning bush at Mount Horeb (elsewhere, Mount Sinai) to deliver the Israelites from the Egyptians (2:23-4:17; 6:2-7:7).

Initially, Moses objects to such a challenging task. The Lord's responses to Moses' objections reveal important aspects of the Exodus. The goal is to get the people of Israel to Mount Sinai (see Exod. 3:11-12) because there the Law is given and the Covenant is made. Since the Israelites lived in a polytheistic world, Moses knows the Israelites will question him as to which god had sent him. At this point, the divine name Yahweh is emphatically revealed to Moses and identified as the One who had interacted with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Since Moses is hesitant as a speaker, Aaron is appointed as his spokesperson (Hebrew, navi "prophet") which explains Aaron’s role as the head of the priests of Israel.

In dramatic fashion, Moses demands Pharaoh to release the Hebrews from slavery. Through Moses, the Lord inflicts ten consecutive plagues on Egypt. The plagues climax when the tenth plague brings death to the firstborn in Egyptian households. Instituting and celebrating a sacred meal known as the Passover spares the Israelite families (Exodus 12:1-51). The Israelites leave Egypt after this tenth plague, but Pharaoh and the Egyptian armies pursue them to the sea. The Lord miraculously delivers Israel through the sea (Hebrew, yam sűph) and destroys the Egyptians in the process (Exod. 13:17-14:31).

Two important aspects of the deliverance from Egypt must be emphasized. First, this Exodus event is an epoch-making moment for the Israelites. It is the salvation episode through which Israel is inseparably linked to Yahweh. This deliverance from Egypt is described as the historical basis of the covenant between Yahweh and Israel in other passages of the Old Testament. The Exodus from Egypt is the reason why Israel considered itself Yahweh’s chosen people.

Second, the plagues on Egypt as well as the deliverance through the sea serve as rejections of the Egyptian pantheon. The ten plagues repeatedly illustrate how Yahweh, the God of Israel, was superior to the Egyptian gods and goddesses. In the plagues, Yahweh subjugates such things as the Nile, the sun, and Pharaoh himself – all of which the Egyptians considered deities. The superiority of Yahweh over and against the Egyptian pantheon is repeatedly emphasized:

  • "on all the gods of Egypt I will execute judgments: I am the Lord (Hebrew, Yahweh)." –Exodus 12:12
  • "Sing to the Lord (Hebrew, Yahweh), for he has triumphed gloriously; horse and rider he has thrown into the sea." –Exodus 15:21
  • "The Lord (Hebrew, Yahweh) is a warrior; the Lord (Hebrew, Yahweh) is his name. . . . Who is like you, O Lord (Hebrew, Yahweh), among the gods? –Exodus 15:11a
  • "I know that the Lord (Hebrew, Yahweh) is greater than all gods, because he delivered the people from the Egyptians, when they dealt arrogantly with them." –Exodus 18:11
  • "while the Egyptians were burying all their firstborn, whom the Lord (Hebrew, Yahweh) had struck down among them. The Lord (Hebrew, Yahweh) executed judgments even against their gods." --Numbers 33:4

Ultimately, the greatness of Yahweh over and against the Egyptian gods and goddess is seen when Israel is delivered through the sea and the Egyptians are destroyed. The greatness of Yahweh over the Egyptian pantheon as seen in the plagues on Egypt and the deliverance through the sea would serve as important warnings for the Israelites when later they would be tempted to worship Egyptian deities:

  • "Now therefore revere the Lord (Hebrew, Yahweh), and serve him in sincerity and in faithfulness; put away the gods that your ancestors served beyond the River and in Egypt, and serve the Lord (Hebrew, Yahweh)." –Joshua 24:14

The Israelites are divinely led to the covenant mountain – sometimes called Mount Sinai and in other places called Mount Horeb. The Israelites repeatedly complain during the journey and express desire to be in Egypt. Along the way, they encounter several crises in the wilderness. The Israelites gain potable water when Moses throws a piece of wood into a pool of bitter water (Exod. 15:22-27). When the Israelites lack food, manna (Hebrew, "what is it?") and quail are provided (Exod. 16:1-36). Moses strikes a rock at Rephidim to produce water (Exod. 17:1-7). The Israelites encounter the Amalekites but the Lord gives them victory as long as Moses arms are raised during the battle (Exod. 17:8-15).

The escape narrative reaches a climax when the covenant is made between the Lord and Israel at Mount Sinai (Exodus 19-24). But while Moses is on the mountain, his brother Aaron and the people of Israel make a golden calf and break the covenant (Exodus 32:1-35). Nevertheless, through Moses’ intercession, the Lord renews the covenant with Israel (Exodus 33:1-34:35).

The wilderness narratives resume in the book of Numbers where the Israelites are still camped at Sinai. While leading the Israelites, Moses endures constant complaints from the people (Numbers 11:1-15; 21:4-9), criticism from family members (Numbers 12:1-16), and revolts from leaders (Numbers 16:1-40).

As Israel camps at the southern border of Palestine, they send twelve spies to survey the land (Numbers 13:1-33). Of the twelve spies, only Joshua and Caleb believe the Lord could conquer the people of Canaan. That generation of Israelites (except for Joshua and Caleb) is condemned to wander for forty years in the wilderness due to their unbelief in the Lord’s power. Along the way, Israel is not thwarted by the Amorites (21:21-32), Bashan (21:33-35), Moab (22:1-24:25), or Midian (31:1-54). The book of Deuteronomy concludes with the death of Moses on Mount Nebo as he overlooks the land of Canaan (Deut. 34:1-12).

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Theology Associated with Moses

Theology associated with Moses and the Mosaic covenant can be summarized in four major topics: the name Yahweh, the covenant, the Law, and clean-unclean distinctions.

First, the name Yahweh (translated in English translations in small capital letters as "the Lord") is revealed to be the personal name of the God of Israel. The text of Exodus describes the etymological origins of the name Yahweh to be linked to the Hebrew verb hayah ("to be"). Thus, the name Yahweh is described as meaning "I am who I am."

  • But Moses said to God, "If I come to the Israelites and say to them, 'The God of your ancestors has sent me to you,' and they ask me, 'What is his name?' what shall I say to them?" God said to Moses, "I Am Who I Am." He said further, "Thus you shall say to the Israelites, ‘I Am has sent me to you.’" God also said to Moses, "Thus you shall say to the Israelites, ‘The Lord [Yahweh], the God of your ancestors, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, has sent me to you’: This is my name forever, and this my title for all generations. –Exodus 3:13-15
  • God also spoke to Moses and said to him: "I am the Lord [Yahweh]. I appeared to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as God Almighty [El Shaddai], but by my name ‘The Lord’ [Yahweh] I did not make myself known to them. –Exodus 6:2-3

Yahweh is not revealed to Moses as a new or unknown god. Instead, Yahweh is explicitly connected to the actions of God associated with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.

It is hard to overstate the significance of the name Yahweh to Israelite worship. The Israelites understood Yahweh to be the personal name of the strong and powerful God who had delivered them from Egypt. As seen in the chart below, Yahweh was not merely another name for a god worshiped by one of Israel's national neighbors. Yahweh was worshiped and hailed as the God of Israel (and centuries later when the kingdoms divide, the God of Judah).

Gods and Goddesses of the Ancient Near East

Phoenicians

Baal, Astarte

Philistines

Dagon

Egyptians

Amon, Horus, Isis, Osiris, Ptah, Ra, Seth, and others

Syrians

Hadad

Canaanites

El (chief god), Baal (storm), Yam (sea), Mot (death), Anat (war), and others

Edomites

Qos

Ammonites

Molech (or Milcom)

Moabites

Chemosh

Assyrians

Asshur

Mesopotamians

Anu (sky), Sin (moon), Enki (water), Enlil (wind), and others

Babylonians

Bel-Marduk (or Merodach), Nabu (or Nebo), Ishtar, and others

Israel (and Judah)

Yahweh

Many passages in the Old Testament speak of the greatness and superiority of Yahweh over and against the gods of Israel's neighbors.

  • . . . on all the gods of Egypt I will execute judgments: I am the Lord [Yahweh]. –Exodus 12:12
  • Who is like you, O Lord [Yahweh], among the gods? –Exodus 15:11
  • Now I know that the Lord [Yahweh] is greater than all gods, because he delivered the people from the Egyptians . . . –Exodus 18:11
  • For great is the Lord [Yahweh], and greatly to be praised; he is to be revered above all gods. For all the gods of the peoples are idols, but the Lord [Yahweh] made the heavens. –Ps. 96:4-5

The third of the Ten Commandments states an explicit warning against the improper use of the name Yahweh.

  • You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord [Yahweh] your God, for the Lord [Yahweh] will not acquit anyone who misuses his name. –Exodus 20:7

After the Babylonian Exile (587-539 BC), the Jewish people took this commandment so seriously that they didn't even pronounce the name. For example, if someone was reading aloud from the Hebrew Bible and came to the name Yahweh in the text, the reader would actually say adonai (Hebrew, "master" or "lord") instead of the name Yahweh. Adonai was a common noun, not a proper name. In the tenth century AD, the Jewish masoretes (scribes who meticulously copied the Hebrew Bible) added vowel pointings to the consonant letters of the Hebrew Bible. When they came to the name Yahweh, they added the vowel pointings from adonai so that the reader would see the consonants for Yahweh (YHWH) yet they would be reminded by the vowel pointings around those consonants to say adonai instead of Yahweh. This combination of consonants from Yahweh and vowels from adonai is where the English term "Jehovah" (or more properly, "Yehowah") comes from. However, the Jews never said the term Jehovah. They merely wrote the name Yahweh with the vowels of adonai as a mnemonic device to remind themselves to treat the real name of their God with utter reverence.

A second important aspect of theology associated with Moses is the covenant. Yahweh and the Israelites are bound together in a covenant relationship (Exod. 19:1-25; 24:1-18). This covenant meant that the Israelites were expected to worship only Yahweh and never any other gods.

  • "You shall have no other gods before me." -- The first of the Ten Commandments in Exodus 20:3
  • "Hear, O Israel: The Lord (Yahweh) is our God, the Lord (Yahweh) alone. You shall love the Lord (Yahweh) your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your might." -- The "Shema" in Deuteronomy 6:4-5

Hebrew prophets such as Hosea and Jeremiah compared this covenant relationship between Yahweh and Israel to the covenant relationship between a husband and wife. If the Israelites worshipped other gods, essentially they were committing religious adultery by being unfaithful to Yahweh as their God.

This covenant between Israel and Yahweh was a national covenant. As a nation, the Israelites were expected to render allegiance only to Yahweh. Granted, this national covenant was rooted in the personal and individual decisions of the people of the nation, but essentially the covenant was regarded as a national relationship to Yahweh as their God.

The covenant between Yahweh and the Israelites has many similarities to suzerainty treaties of the Ancient Near East. A suzerain was a powerful nation that subjugated a weaker nation (called a vassal). The vassal was expected to do certain things for the suzerain out of allegiance and obedience such as pay tribute money or give military support to the suzerain. If the vassal objected, the suzerain would punish the vassal, often by overrunning their vassal's country. Interestingly, the covenant between Yahweh and Israel is outlined in the Torah with many of the main stipulations of Ancient Near Eastern suzerainty treaties. The Israelites were expected to obey the covenant by worshiping only Yahweh or else they could expect severe national calamities.

The covenant between Yahweh and Israel is so important that most Old Testament scholars identify it as the central or cohesive theme for all the books of the Old Testament. Even the name "Old Testament" for this section of the Christian Bible is based on this covenant.

A third important aspect of theology associated with Moses is the Law. Israel's responsibilities in the covenant are summarized in the Law. The Law was far more than just ten commandments. Jewish scribes counted over six hundred laws in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

Old Testament scholars generally divide the laws up into two main categories. First, incontestable (or "apodictic") laws were ones that demanded absolute, unconditional obedience. All of the Ten Commandments would be categorized as incontestable since each declares what the Israelites were to do and not to do without any conditions. Second, conditional (or "casuistic") laws were ones that prescribe a specific consequence for a specific action. Many of these conditional laws describe what the Israelites were to do if a certain situation occurred.

Two of the most famous laws in the Old Testament are examples of each of these two categories. The "Shema" is the core of the covenant for the Jewish people. It is named after the opening word "hear" (Hebrew, shema) in Deuteronomy 6:4. The Shema is an example of incontestable law:

  • Hear, O Israel: The Lord is our God, the Lord alone. You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your might. . . . –Deuteronomy 6:4-5

The Lex Talionis (Latin, "law of retaliation") is the famous "eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth" law. It is an example of conditional law. While the law might seem harsh by modern judicial standards, the law was an attempt to limit the amount of retaliation a victim could seek against the perpetrator of a crime.

  • Anyone who maims another shall suffer the same injury in return: fracture for fracture, eye for eye, tooth for tooth; the injury inflicted is the injury to be suffered. –Leviticus 24:19-20

The laws in the Torah are spread throughout the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. There are some major sections of law codes within the Torah. The Covenant Code in Exodus (20:22-23:33) are laws regarding personal and property rights and worship requirements. The Deuteronomic Code in Deuteronomy (5:1-26:19) emphasizes faithfulness to the covenant and its implications. The Priestly Code in Leviticus (and paralleled in Exod. 25-31) contains laws regulating Israelite worship regarding priests, sacrifices, the tabernacle, holy days, and clean/unclean distinctions. The Priestly Code repeatedly emphasizes that Israel was to be holy because their God was holy. To be holy meant to be set apart and distinct.

  • Speak to all the congregation of the people of Israel and say to them: You shall be holy, for I the Lord (Yahweh) your God am holy. –Leviticus 19:2

The Ten Commandments are the most famous laws in the entire Bible. The Ten Commandments are given in both Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5. Jews, Catholics, and Protestants number the commandments differently, but they all come up with ten. The Ten Commandments describe the responsibilities that Israelites had to their God and to society. The first four commandments focus on Israel's relationship to God while the last six focus on relationships within Israelite society. The first four are more difficult for readers today to interpret since modern readers worship differently than the ancient Israelites did. The first commandment was a rejection of the worship of other gods and goddesses such as Baal, Asherah, and Astarte which Israel's neighbors worshiped. The second commandment was a rejection of any attempt to make a physical depiction of Yahweh (see Deuteronomy 4). The third commandment required respect and reverence for the name Yahweh as the God of Israel. The fourth commandment was for the Jewish people to use the seventh day (from Friday sundown until Saturday sundown) as a Sabbath for worship and rest.

The Ten Commandments delineate basic laws that served as the foundation for other laws in the Torah. The last six commandments, which deal with relationships in a society, are easier for modern readers to interpret. The fifth commandment was a recognition of elders in society. The audience of this fifth commandment was not little children but adults who were to honor their parents. The sixth commandment recognizes the preciousness and value of human life. The seventh commandment recognizes the importance of marital faithfulness since the family is the most basic unit within any society. The eighth commandment is a simple statement of personal property rights. While the ninth commandment implies honest integrity in all one's doings, the original focus of this commandment was that the justice system ought to be just. In primitive society, judicial decisions were primarily based on word of testimony. The tenth commandment addresses improper motivations that might cause one to break the other commandments.

The Ten Commandments in Exodus 20:2-17

The Ten Commandments in Deut. 5:6-21

Jewish Numbering

Catholic and Lutheran Numbering

Orthodox and Reformed Numbering

2 I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery;

Deut. 5:6

1

 

 

3 you shall have no other gods before me.

Deut. 5:7

2

1

1

4 You shall not make for yourself an idol, whether in the form of anything that is in heaven above, or that is on the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. 5 You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, punishing children for the iniquity of parents, to the third and the fourth generation of those who reject me, 6 but showing steadfast love to the thousandth generation of those who love me and keep my commandments.

Deut. 5:8-10

2

7 You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord will not acquit anyone who misuses his name.

Deut. 5:11

3

2

3

8 Remember the sabbath day, and keep it holy. 9 Six days you shall labor and do all your work. 10 But the seventh day is a sabbath to the Lord your God; you shall not do any work—you, your son or your daughter, your male or female slave, your livestock, or the alien resident in your towns. 11 For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but rested the seventh day; therefore the Lord blessed the sabbath day and consecrated it.

Deut

5:12-15

4

3

4

12 Honor your father and your mother, so that your days may be long in the land that the Lord your God is giving you.

Deut. 5:16

5

4

5

13 You shall not murder.

Deut. 5:17

6

5

6

14 You shall not commit adultery.

Deut. 5:18

7

6

7

15 You shall not steal.

Deut. 5:19

8

7

8

16 You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.

Deut. 5:20

9

8

9

17 You shall not covet your neighbor’s house;

Deut. 5:21a

10

9

10

you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife, or male or female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbor.

Deut. 5:21b

10

A fourth important aspect of theology associated with Moses is the distinction between clean and unclean. Certain things and actions were considered taboo or profane or common or "unclean." Other things and actions were considered holy or sacred or "clean." The difference between clean and unclean had nothing to do with dirt or hygiene. Being unclean meant that one was unfit for public worship. Being unclean was often a temporary status of a few days or could be prolonged by certain conditions. Cleanness could be achieved again once the requirements for being clean were met.

The Torah designated certain spaces and places as being sacred. The ark of the covenant was the "sacred box" moved only by the priests. It represented the presence of the Lord with the Israelites. The ark was kept in a portable tent of curtains known as the tabernacle. Centuries later, the ark would be housed in the temple in Jerusalem built by King Solomon.

The Torah designated certain times as being sacred. The Torah designated three annual festivals that were celebrated for a week. Passover (or "Unleavened Bread") was celebrated in the Spring (March-April) and commemorated the deliverance from Egypt. Weeks (or "First Fruits" or "Pentecost") was seven weeks later in May or June and commemorated the giving of the Law at Mount Sinai. Tabernacles (or "Booths" or "Succoth") was in the Fall (September-October) and commemorated the wandering in the wilderness. The Day of Atonement (Hebrew, Yom Kippur) was an important national day of fasting in the Fall (usually October). Weekly, the Jewish people recognized the seventh day (from sundown on Friday through sundown on Saturday) as a Sabbath day for rest and worship.

The Torah specified many regulations of how the ancient Israelites were to worship the Lord. Priests were to be from the tribe of Levi and the family of Aaron. Animals and grain were sacrificed for specific reasons and in specific manners to atone for sin (see Leviticus 1-7).

Certain activities and conditions caused an Israelite to be temporarily unclean. Physical conditions such as leprosy, open wounds, or a women's menstruation would cause an Israelite to be temporarily unclean. Certain foods were considered unclean such as pork, camel, catfish, and shellfish.

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Key Terms and Concepts for Review

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Where to Next?

Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible [NRSV], copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2011 Jeff Cate. All Rights Reserved. No material from this web page may be copied, reproduced, republished, uploaded, posted, transmitted, or distributed in any way, except for personal, educational, non-commercial home use only, provided you keep intact all copyright and other proprietary notices. Modification of the materials or use of the materials for any other purpose is a violation of the copyright and other intellectual property rights.