Unit 3B of CST100 surveys the books of the Hebrew Bible known as the Latter Prophets and Writings. The main sections for Unit 3B are:
The recommending readings from the Bible for this unit of material are the following chapters: Hosea 1-3; 11; Amos 1-2; 5-6; Micah 4-6; Isaiah 1; 6; 9; 40; 52-53; 55; Jeremiah 7; 31; Ezekiel 37; Malachi 4.
Certain individuals in
In English usage, the term "prophet" usually refers to someone who predicts the future. This was not necessarily true of the Hebrew prophets. The Hebrew concept of a prophet was someone who spoke on behalf of someone else (usually the Lord), not necessarily about the future. Even Aaron is described as being Moses' navi in Exodus 7:1. Thus, the Hebrew prophets were "forthtellers" more than "foretellers." Often the prophetic oracles are introduced with phrases such as "thus says the Lord" or "the word of the Lord came unto me" to indicate that the prophet was speaking on behalf of Yahweh. Thus, the prophets often used first-person pronouns to speak for the Lord. The prophets emphasized religious and ethical issues, but some prophets (such as Nathan, Elisha, and Isaiah) were known as court prophets that intervened in political affairs.
The earliest Hebrew prophets were known for ecstatic behavior when the
Spirit of the Lord came upon them
(1 Sam. 10:1-13;
The early Hebrew prophets appear sporadically throughout the books of the Hebrew Bible known as the "Former Prophets" (Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings). The oracles of these early Hebrew prophets were not recorded. In the eighth century BC (700s, that is), the oracles of certain Hebrew prophets began to be recorded in books.
As individuals, the latter prophets are categorized according to
their appearance before, during, or after the Exile in
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Eighth-Century Pre-Exilic Prophets |
Seventh-Century Pre-Exilic Prophets |
Exilic Prophets |
Post-Exilic |
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The audience of these Hebrew prophets was predominantly the people of
As books, the latter prophets are categorized into two major sections: three major prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel) and twelve minor prophets (known in the Hebrew Bible as "the Book of the Twelve"). The main difference between the major and minor prophets is the size of the books. The books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel are 66, 52, and 48 chapters each, respectively, while the longest of the minor prophet books are Zechariah and Hosea with only 14 chapters each. Sometimes the major and minor prophets were contemporaries and both addressed the same issues (such as Isaiah and Micah).
In the Hebrew Bible, the book of Daniel was included among the Writings (Hebrew, kethuvim), not the Prophets. How or when the prophetic books were compiled is unknown since the books give evidence of a complex compositional history (especially, Jeremiah, Isaiah, and Zechariah).
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Major Prophets |
Minor Prophets |
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Theology Associated with the Prophets
The prophets were spokespeople for the Lord, not prognosticators, predictors, or fortune-tellers. They were forthtellers more than foretellers. They did proclaim the word of the Lord that would certainly impact the future, but references to the future often were in terms of anticipation of future hopes or woes as consequences for the people’s actions. The message of the prophets was rooted in God’s revelation in the past. The prophets often appealed to the covenant and God’s saving acts in the history of the people.
The prophets focused on the problems, issues, and injustices of their world. To interpret the Hebrew prophets properly, one must understand the historical context in which the prophets spoke. Unfortunately, many readers assume that the main purpose of the prophets was to predict the coming of Jesus. While New Testament writers quote some passages from the prophets as being fulfilled in the life of Jesus, only a tiny fraction of the words of the prophets have such connections. Most of the passages which are seen as referring to Jesus are found in a second meaning or a double nuance above and beyond the original context of the passage. For example, Isaiah 7:14 is one of the most often quoted verses pertaining to the birth of Jesus (especially because the LXX form is quoted in Matthew 1:22-23), but the intention of the passage to the original audience was to provide King Ahaz a sign during the Syro-Ephraimitic crisis that Jerusalem faced in the 700s BC (as clearly seen in the larger context, Isaiah 7:1-8:18).
The messages of the prophets can be simplified into two major categories: doom and hope.
Examples of messages of doom include:
Examples of messages of hope include:
The message of the prophets was conveyed through a variety of methods including dramatic acts, (e.g., Hos. 1:1-3:5; Isa. 20:1-6; Jer. 27:1-28:17, and Ezek. 4:1-5:17), visions (e.g., Amos 7:1-9:4, Jer. 1:11-14, and Ezek. 1:1-28; 37:1-14), and allegories (e.g., Isa. 5:1-7; Jer. 18:1-12). Despite all their efforts, the message of the prophets was often rejected as seen in the books of Amos (7:10-17) and Jeremiah (28:1-17; 36:1-32).
Pre-Exilic
Prophets of the Eighth Century BC
It wasn't until the eighth century BC that the oracles of Hebrew prophets began to be recorded, even though there were many Hebrew prophets before that time. Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah are typically categorized as the "Eighth Century Prophets." These four prophets spoke during the times when Assyria dominated the Ancient Near East.
The prophet Amos was a fig-picker (7:14) and shepherd (1:1) from the tiny village of Tekoa in Judah. Even though he was from the Southern Kingdom of Judah, his message was to the Northern Kingdom of Israel. He prophesied during the reign of Jeroboam 2 in 760s-750s BC. Those were times of politically stability and economic prosperity. Amos spoke harsh words to awaken the people to injustices in their midst.
In the opening two chapters (1:1-2:16), Amos indicts national neighbors such as Syria, Philistia, Phoenicia, Edom, Ammon, and Moab. For each, Amos exposes several instances of national injustice. Amos culminates with similar harsh words against Judah (2:4-5) and Israel (2:6-16). Amos showed the people of Israel that not only would they be held to the same standards as the rest of the nations, but they also were to be more accountable due to their special position as Yahweh's chosen people (3:1-15).
Amos denounced the people of Israel for living luxurious lives funded by their exploitation of the poor (4:1-13). Amos announced that the "day of the Lord" would soon come on them as a time of national calamity and judgment (5:18-20). Prior to Amos, most would have looked forward to the "day of the Lord" as a time when Yahweh would vindicate Israel over and against her national neighbors. Amos rejected the worship practices of the people of Israel as merely empty rituals (for example, their festivals, sacrifices, and songs in 5:21-23) because the Lord desired to see justice and righteousness in their society (5:24).
The book of Amos concludes with a series of five visions (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) to convey the message of impending judgment. Amos' message was rejected by Amaziah, the official priest of the royal sanctuary at Bethel for the Northern Kingdom of Israel (7:10-17). Even though Amos was an untrained and uneducated prophet (7:14-15), he stood his ground and announced impending judgment against the status quo.
Hosea is the only prophet among the Latter Prophets books that came from Israel and spoke to Israel. All the others came from Judah. Thus, Hosea spoke as a native to his people.
The Lord told Hosea to take a prostitute as a wife (1:2) so he married Gomer (1:3). She bore him three children (1:3-9): Jezreel, Lo-ruhamah (Hebrew, "not pitied"), and Lo-ammi (Hebrew, "not my people"), which presumably were from her unfaithfulness, not Hosea (2:4-5). Ultimately, Hosea restored her publicly (3:1-5). The entire episode between Hosea and Gomer pictures the Lord's relationship to Israel (1:2b; 2:16-20; 3:1b, 4-5). The prophet Hosea was using a dramatic act to depict both Israel’s unfaithfulness to the covenant as well as the steadfast love of the Lord despite their unfaithfulness.
Like Amos (Amos 5:21-24), Hosea also denounces empty religious ritual which had no connection to ethical living (Hosea 6:6). In one of the most endearing images of the Lord in the Hebrew Bible, the prophet Hosea emphasizes the Lord’s compassion for Israel as a parent to a child (Hosea 11:1-7).
Isaiah of Jerusalem
(Isaiah 1-39)
The large book of Isaiah is universally recognized to divide into three distinct sections (not to mention various subsections within these major sections). The context of chapters 1-39 is Judah before the Babylonian Exile. Chapters 40-55 (often called "Second Isaiah" or "Deutero Isaiah") express hope for the people of Judah during the Exile. Chapters 56-66 (often called "Third Isaiah" or "Trito Isaiah") seem to describe life in Judah after the Exile. There are many debates about the authorship and original form of this book. Some think that the entire book was written by Isaiah the prophet in the 700s BC. Others think that the book is a compilation of oracles from Isaiah of Jerusalem in the 700s BC (1-39) and others associated with him in the ensuing generations (40-66). Isaiah's name last appears in 36:1-39:8, a narrative section that is nearly verbatim parallel with 2 Kings 18:13-20:19.
Isaiah is identified as the son of the otherwise unknown Amoz (1:1). The books of Isaiah and 2 Kings describe Isaiah as a court prophet who gave prophetic counsel from 742 to 701 BC to four of Judah's kings, most notably Ahaz and Hezekiah. Isaiah's call to be a prophet is narrated in 6:1-13 in which he was overwhelmed by the sight of the Lord in the Temple. In 7:1-8:15, Isaiah instructed King Ahaz of Judah during the Syro-Ephraimitic Crisis in 734 BC. Through Isaiah, the Lord gave Ahaz three signs (7:1-9, 10-17; 8:1-4) to validate Isaiah's message. Nevertheless, Ahaz sought help from Assyria and Judah became a vassal state. Isaiah 36-39 narrates Isaiah's role as a court prophet during the Sennacherib Crisis which Hezekiah and Jerusalem faced in 701 BC.
The book of Isaiah has many oracles that express hope to the people of Judah in the eighth century BC. Isaiah 2:2-5 anticipates a coming time of prosperity and peace in which "they shall beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks." Isaiah 4:2-6 poetically describes a righteous remnant of people in Jerusalem as "the branch of the Lord" (see also Isaiah 10:20-23). Isaiah 9:2-7 and 11:1-9 express hope for the nation through an ideal king. Originally, these passages anticipated the ascension of a new king in Jerusalem, possibly Hezekiah. Eventually, these passages came to be understood as descriptions of a messianic national ruler who would usher in times of peace and prosperity.
On the other hand, Isaiah speaks many harsh words of doom and judgment to the people of Judah. In the opening chapter, Isaiah denounces Judah's worship as being empty and meaningless because the people were known for their wrongdoing (1:10-20). Throughout the book, Isaiah frequently warns of the "day of the Lord" (or "that day") as a time of intense judgment on God's people (for example, 2:6-22). In the "Song of the Vineyard" (5:1-7), Isaiah uses an allegory to describe God's people as a vineyard with great potential but no produce that would be left vulnerable to destruction. The book of Isaiah contains oracles against foreign nations such as Assyria (10:5-19) and others as well (chapters 13-22). Isaiah 24-27 is often called the "Apocalypse of Isaiah" because it describes impending judgment in terms similar to Jewish apocalypses of later times.
Micah was from Moresheth in Judah. Micah was the younger contemporary of Isaiah (see Mic. 1:1; Isa. 1:1; Jer. 26:18). Whereas Isaiah was a prominent prophet that wielded his influence in the city of Jerusalem with kings such as Ahaz and Hezekiah, Micah was a peasant from a tiny farming village who looked with great suspicion and skepticism at the cities of Jerusalem and Samaria (1:1, 5-9; 3:1-4, 12).
Like the book of Isaiah, Micah has passages of doom (1:2-2:11; 3:1-12; 6:1-7:7) and hope (2:12-13; 4:1-5:15; 7:8-20). Micah announced that the city of Jerusalem would suffer destruction (3:12) due to the disobedience of the people (3:1-3, 9-11). Despite such harsh words, Micah speaks quite positively of the exaltation of Israel, Jerusalem, and the dynasty of David among the other nations (4:1-5:15). In tones similar to Isaiah 9:2-7; 11:1-9, Micah describes an ideal king that would come from Bethlehem (5:2; cf. also Mt. 2:5-6; Lk. 2:4, 11; Jn. 7:42). In a manner similar to Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah, Micah denounces empty worship rituals in favor of "doing justice, loving mercy, and walking humbly with your God" (Micah 6:6-8).
Pre-Exilic Prophets of the Seventh Century BC
The prophets Jeremiah, Zephaniah, Nahum, and Habakkuk are often categorized together because they all prophesied before the Exile during the times when the Babylonians dominated the Ancient Near East.
Jeremiah was the son of Hilkiah, a priest from Anathoth (1:1) near Jerusalem. His prophetic ministry (ca. 627-587 BC) was set in the decades immediately preceding the Exile in Babylon (587-539 BC). The book of Jeremiah is a collection of oracles, memoirs, and historical narratives, albeit not in chronological order. Jeremiah was called to be a prophet when he was a youth (1:4-6). The majority of Jeremiah’s message was judgment on Judah for their disobedience to the covenant with Yahweh. This judgment would come at the hands of a "foe from the North" which is later identified as Babylon (1:10-19).
Jeremiah's messages often met rejection. In his famous "Temple Sermon" (7:1-15; 26:1-24), Jeremiah warned the people of Jerusalem that the presence of Yahweh's Temple was no guarantee that foreign armies would not be able to take the city. Jeremiah preached that only righteous, obedient living would ensure the Lord's protection of them and the city. Jeremiah's message was rejected as being treasonous against his own people and blasphemous against the Lord. Jeremiah was arrested but later released.
A few years after King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon had initially plundered the Jerusalem Temple and subjugated the people (597 BC), Jeremiah wore a wooden yoke to symbolize Judah's enslavement to Babylon. A rival prophet named Hananiah challenged Jeremiah by breaking the yoke and declaring that God would soon bring the Babylonian oppression to an end (28:1-11). Jeremiah countered by announcing that the wooden yoke would be replaced with iron bars symbolizing just how inevitable punishment at the hands of the Babylonians was (28:12-17).
On another occasion, Jeremiah's trustworthy scribe Baruch recorded all his oracles (36:1-32), but King Jehoiakim of Jerusalem burned the scroll and then ordered Jeremiah and Baruch to be arrested.
Jeremiah’s personal turmoil as a prophet is recorded in a series of laments or complaints to the Lord (11:18-12:6; 15:10-21; 17:14-18; 18:18-23; 20:7-13; 20:14-18). Jeremiah complains that he was coerced against his own will to be a prophet and that he was miserable trying to be such a spokesperson for the Lord. Since no other Hebrew prophet offers such reflective, personal details about spiritual struggle with God, Jeremiah is often known as the "weeping prophet" due to the preface to Lamentations in LXX (based on 2 Chron. 35:25).
The book of Jeremiah includes descriptions of the Babylonian conquest of
Despite so many words of doom and judgment, Jeremiah records hope for the people as well. The Allegory of the Potter (18:1-12) indicates that the people of Judah could have a second chance just as a potter was able to remake a piece of wet clay that was misshapen. Despite the Babylonians' conquest of the land of Judah, Jeremiah bought a plot of land in Anathoth as a guarantee that the people would return after their deportation to Babylon (32:1-44). Jeremiah also anticipates a new covenant that would be internal, not external (Jer. 31:31-34; see also Ezek. 11:19; Lk. 22:20; 1 Cor. 11:25; 2 Cor. 3:6).
Zephaniah seems to have prophesied during the beginning of the reign of Josiah of Judah (640-609 BC). The nation was still reeling in the wake of the dark days of Manasseh. Zephaniah announces widespread, universal judgment in terms of annihilation (1:1-18). The Lord is angry at the people’s idolatry (1:4-6). Like Amos and Isaiah, Zephaniah announces the impending day of the Lord to be a time of judgment (1:7-18). In the midst of a message of such doom, Zephaniah offers some hope for the people by stating that a remnant that would survive (3:11-13). The book of Zephaniah concludes with a joyful song rejoicing that judgment had been averted (3:14-20), possibly due to Josiah's religious reforms in 621 BC.
The book of Nahum is basically a taunt song rejoicing in the fall of Nineveh in 612 BC. Since Assyria had been an oppressive empire in the Ancient Near East for centuries and had conquered Samaria and subjugated Jerusalem, Nahum reflects typical Jewish sentiments at the downfall of Assyria. Nahum 1:2-14 describes the Lord as an avenging God, slow to anger but great in power. Nahum describes Assyria as the enemy of the Lord and the Lord’s people and therefore worthy of the punishment it received (1:15-3:19). Judah rejoiced in the turn of events (1:15).
Habakkuk was disturbed that the Lord permitted the destruction of the people of Judah at the hands of pagan foreigners such as the Babylonians. The prophet feels that his prayers for help are unheard (Habakkuk 1:2) and that justice has been perverted since power is in the hands of a brutal empire (1:3). In Habakkuk 1:5-11, the Lord assures the prophet that though wicked as they are, the Babylonians are an instrument in God’s plan. The heart of Habakkuk’s problem is summarized in 1:13, "Why are the wicked prospering while they are devouring the righteous." The Lord responds that divine justice is certain and that in the meanwhile the righteous must live by faith (2:4).
The Babylonian captivity began when King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon conquered Judah and deported its national leaders in 597 BC. This happened because King Jehoiakim of Judah had refused to pay tribute money to the Babylonians (2 Kings 24). Ten years later (587 BC), Nebuchadnezzar returned because King Zedekiah had stopped paying tribute money to the Babylonians (2 Kings 24-25). Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jerusalem and the Temple and deported more of the people to Babylon. Empires of the ancient world sometimes deported conquered peoples to break their national spirit and to weaken their national identity. It wasn't until 539 BC when Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon and freed the deported peoples that the Jewish people began returning to their homeland.
The destruction of Jerusalem and the exile in Babylon were such devastating events that many different responses to it are found in the Hebrew Bible. Some passages such as the book of Lamentations express grief and remorse for the destruction of Jerusalem in terms of funeral dirges or laments. Other passages such as Psalm 137:8-9 express anger towards the Babylonians and hope for God's vengeance on them in very brutal terms. Other passages such as the book of Obadiah express anger towards national neighbors such as Edom who rejoiced in the destruction of Jerusalem. Other passages such as Jeremiah 44:16-17 indicate that some people thought that the Babylonian gods and goddesses had shown their superiority by the event. But often passages such as the books of 2 Kings and Jeremiah describe the destruction of Jerusalem as punishment that Judah deserved because of their disobedience to the covenant (see also Isaiah 40:2).
Obadiah is the shortest book in the Hebrew Bible. The book of Obadiah is essentially an oracle against Edom. Edom was Israel’s neighbor to the southeast and kinspeople (the descendants of Esau, otherwise known as Edom) according to Genesis 25:30; 36:1. Since Edom had rejoiced with the fall of Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians, Obadiah says that Edom would suffer similar destruction. Besides Obadiah, other Jewish writers expressed hostility against Edom for similar reasons (Ps. 137:7; Isa. 34:5-7; Ezek. 25:12-14; Mal. 1:2-5).
The prophet Ezekiel was from a priestly family and his entire prophetic career took place in Babylon during the Exile. He was among the first group of deportees that were taken from Judah in 597 BC after Nebuchadnezzar's first conquest of Jerusalem. Ezekiel's career as a prophet seems to have spanned about twenty-two years, from 593 (1:2) to 571 BC (29:17). Much of Ezekiel's emphasis was to encourage the Jewish people in Exile that they would be restored to their land, even though that would not necessarily be any time soon.
The book of Ezekiel is a complex collection of signs, visions, allegories, dramatic acts, and oracles. These items are described with symbolic language that can be bizarre and puzzling. Even though Ezekiel's writings are not categorized as being fully developed apocalypticism, they definitely are a major step in that direction.
Some of the most memorable passages in Ezekiel are the visions and dramatic acts. Ezekiel's call to be a prophet comes in the first three chapters when he sees the Lord's throne in a vision that includes bizarre animals (1:5-14), wheels, fire, and clouds. Ezekiel is famous for his numerous dramatic acts. Ezekiel portrays the city of Jerusalem under siege on a brick to symbolize the Lord's role in the destruction of Jerusalem (4:1-3). Ezekiel lies on his left side for 390 days and on his right side for 40 days symbolizing the extent of the punishment on Israel and Judah, respectively (4:4-8). Ezekiel rations his food and cooks it with dung to symbolize the severity of the exile (4:9-17). Ezekiel cuts his hair in three parts to symbolize the Exile as well (5:1-17). Other dramatic acts are found in 12:1-20 and 24:15-17.
One of Ezekiel's most famous visions is the Valley of Dry Bones (37:1-14). A valley of scattered bones comes together and takes on flesh and life. The vision gave hope to the Jewish people in exile that they would return to the land of Judah and would become a people again, even though in Babylon that felt like their national identity and spirit had died.
Second Isaiah (Isaiah chapters 40-55) is sometimes called the "Book of Consolation" because these words gave hope to the people of Judah in Exile in Babylon. Isaiah 40:1-11 speaks of a new exodus from Babylon (not Egypt). The Exile is described as a time of punishment for Judah’s sins (40:2). The exiles are to anticipate the road home to Judah (40:3). Isaiah 40:12-31 encourages the people of the exile to wait faithfully for the Lord’s deliverance of them from Babylon (especially 40:31).
Second Isaiah is famous for its four "servant songs" (Isa. 42:1-4; 49:1-6; 50:4-9; 52:13-53:12) which describe the ministry of a righteous servant of the Lord. The identity of the servant is never stated. The servant could be the nation of Israel personified as an individual (Isa. 43:10) or some individual (Isa. 52:13-53:12) such as a contemporary of the prophet, the prophet himself, or an anticipated national leader.
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Significant Dates during the Persian Period |
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539 BC |
Fall of Babylon and End of Babylonian Exile. Cyrus the Great of Persia conquers Babylon and permits the Jews to return to Jerusalem and Judah. |
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520-515 BC |
Rebuilding of the Temple of Yahweh in Jerusalem. At the urging of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah and under the leadership of Governor Zerubbabel and the High Priest Jeshua, the Temple is rebuilt and stands until AD 70. |
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458 BC |
Reforms Under Ezra. Ezra returns from Babylon as a leader who publicly read the law and led the people to renew their covenant with God. |
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445 BC |
Nehemiah Rebuilds the Walls of Jerusalem. Nehemiah returns and rebuilds the walls of Jerusalem despite opposition by the Samaritans. |
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331 BC |
Judah under Greek Rule. Judah, along with the rest of Syria and Palestine, becomes part of the Greek empire of Alexander the Great. |
In 539 BC when Cyrus allowed the Jews to go home from their Babylonian Exile, the Jews were encouraged to rebuild their Temple in Jerusalem. By 520 BC no significant progress was evident (Hag. 1:2-4, 8-14). In 520 BC, Haggai along with the prophet Zechariah (Ezra 5:1; 6:14) were responsible for urging the Temple to be rebuilt. Haggai saw this new sanctuary as ushering in an unprecedented time of God's rule on earth (Hag. 2:20-23). This was to occur under Zerubbabel, the Governor of Judah, whom Haggai designates as the Lord's servant and chosen one (2:23).
The present form of the book of Zechariah contains two distinct sections: (1) "Historical Zechariah" in 1:1-8:23; and (2) "Apocalyptic Zechariah" or "Second Zechariah" in 9:1-14:21. Zechariah was a contemporary of the prophet Haggai and was known as both the son of Berechiah (Zechariah 1:1, 7) and the son of Iddo (Zechariah 1:1, 7; Ezra 5:1; 6:14).
In the first "half" of the book, Zechariah has a series of eight "night visions" which are dated to 519-518 BC (1:7-6:15). The message of these vision is to encourage the rebuilding of the Jerusalem Temple. Zechariah proclaims both Zerubbabel, the Governor of Jerusalem, (3:8; 4:9) and Jeshua, the High Priest of Jerusalem, (3:1-10; 6:9-15) to be the leaders who would usher in God's messianic rule on earth (4:10-14).
The second part of the book of Zechariah (chapters 9-14) is quite different from the first (chapters 1-8) in terms of content (no references to rebuilding Jerusalem), context (addressing Greek issues instead of Persian), and genre (proto-apocalyptic). Chapters 9-14 contain many apocalyptic visions reflecting hopes for a conquering king (9:9-10; 14:1-21).
The third section of Isaiah (chapters 56-66) reflects both hopes (56:1-8; 60:1-66:24) and disappointments (56:9-59:21) among the people of Judah after the exile. This section of Isaiah is less unified than the first two sections of the book (1-39 and 40-55).
Virtually nothing is known of Joel as a person. The dates of his prophetic ministry are uncertain. Joel 1:2-2:27 describes a devastating plague of locusts that foreshadows a future time of judgment (1:15-20 -- judgment which could be averted by true repentance (2:12-17). Joel 2:28-32 describes the outpouring of the Spirit upon all types of people (men and women, young and old, free and slaves) and cosmic signs in the "great and terrible day of the Lord."
Nothing is known about Malachi as a person. Since the name means, "my messenger," (see Malachi 2:7; 3:1) some Old Testament specialists think that "Malachi" may be a metaphorical title for the book instead of a personal name. Malachi speaks frequently about obedience to the covenant (1:2; 2:4-8; 3:1; 3:6-7; 4:4). The book describes a coming messenger (3:1-5) who would purify God’s people as a "refiner’s fire" and a "fuller’s soap" (3:1-2). Malachi announces that the prophet Elijah would be sent before "the great and terrible day of the Lord" (4:5-6) – the last verses of the Old Testament in the English arrangement of the Bible.
The book of Jonah is unique among the Latter Prophets of the Hebrew Bible because it contains no oracles. Instead, it is a short-story narrative. Outside of the book of Jonah itself, Jonah the son of Amittai (Jonah 1:1) is an obscure character mentioned only one time elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible (2 Kgs. 14:25). The book of Jonah has its setting in the times of Jeroboam 2 (ca. 786-746 BC) when Assyria dominated the Ancient Near East. Many Old Testament specialists think that the story of Jonah was written down sometime during the Persian period (ca. 539-331 BC) after the Exile in order to warn the Jewish people not to be so ethnocentric that they would not recognize God's concern for outsiders (see especially Jonah 4:11).
According to the book of Jonah, Jonah was commissioned by the Lord to preach to the city of Nineveh, which was the capital of Assyria (Jonah 1:1-2). Instead, Jonah boarded a ship westward in the opposite direction (1:3). Due to his disobedience, the Lord sent a storm which endangered everyone on board until Jonah was thrown into the sea (1:4-16). The Lord sent a great fish to swallow Jonah and he spent three days and nights in it (1:17; Mt. 12:39-41; 16:4). Then after Jonah was vomited up onto land (2:10), the Lord commissioned him a second time to go to Nineveh (3:1-3). Jonah reluctantly preached and to his dismay the king and the people of Assyria repented (3:5-9) with the effect that Nineveh was spared from divine punishment (3:10). Jonah expresses disappointment at this because he wanted the Assyrians to incur divine judgment (4:1-5). Jonah sulked in the shade of a bush until it withered and died and then Jonah again wanted to die (4:6-11).
Modern readers of the book of Jonah are alarmed at the thought of a fish swallowing a person and that person living to tell about it, but the original readers of the book would have been more alarmed at the thought of the Lord sending one of his prophets to Nineveh in order to extend mercy to them. Assyria was considered a pagan, wicked, brutal empire in the eyes of Israel and Judah. The book of Nahum which rejoices in the destruction of Nineveh and Assyria reflects the typical attitude against Assyria. The Assyrians were the ones that had destroyed the Northern Kingdom of Israel and subjugated the Southern Kingdom of Judah in the 700s BC. For the Lord to send one of his prophets to Nineveh would have seemed unthinkable. But the last verse of the book (4:11) makes clear that God's concern for the nations was far more global than many from Judah (such as Jonah in the book) had thought.
Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible [NRSV], copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.
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